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Use Smart & Programmable Thermostats

Sector
Buildings & Electricity
Mode
Cut Emissions
Cluster
Enhance Efficiency
Image
Hand pointing to smart thermostat on the wall
Coming Soon
On
Summary

We define Use Smart & Programmable Thermostats as reducing energy use and associated GHG emissions from heating and cooling by automatically making adjustments to the set temperature of a residential building. Smart thermostats can be remotely controlled and can adjust indoor temperature settings in response to learned occupancy patterns, while programmable thermostats require a user to manually program a temperature schedule.

Income & work,Health
Air quality
Description for Social and Search
Using smart or programmable thermostats to regularly adjust residential temperature settings for energy savings also reduces the emissions from heating and cooling residential buildings.
Overview

Residential buildings directly and indirectly generate GHG emissions through the fuels and electricity used for heating, cooling, and other functions. These emissions accounted for 12.5% of global emissions in 2021 (Ge et al., 2026). Heating is the largest residential source of operational emissions, with cooling being another major contributor (Energy Transitions Commission, 2025).

Smart and programmable thermostats reduce energy use by allowing temperatures to drift when occupants are away or asleep and restoring optimal temperatures in anticipation of occupants returning or waking. Since heating systems often rely on burning fossil fuels for heat (International Energy Agency [IEA], 2023), the emissions affected are primarily CO₂. Similarly, the emissions affected when cooling demands are reduced are primarily CO₂ from the electricity generated to power heat pumps and air conditioners. 

The amount of CO₂ saved with smart and programmable thermostats can vary substantially with occupant behavior, set points, occupancy levels, and climate (Pritoni et al., 2015; Stopps & Touchie, 2021). We used the minimum performance standard for Energy Star–certified smart thermostats, namely 8% run-time reduction for heating and 10% for cooling (Energy Star, n.d.), with run time being used as a proxy for energy savings. This is a conservative value; many studies have measured or modeled higher savings (Alhamayani et al., 2021; Pang et al., 2021). 

Owning a smart or programmable thermostat does not guarantee it will be used to adjust temperatures to save energy (Pritoni et al., 2015; Stopps & Touchie, 2021). For example, while 53% of U.S. homes own a smart or programmable thermostat, only 16% report using a smart or programmable thermostat to automatically adjust temperatures (U.S. Energy Information Administration [U.S. EIA], 2023a). We also assumed that households that do not have a smart or programmable thermostat are not manually adjusting temperatures to save energy. 

As societies electrify, smart and programmable thermostats may play an increasingly important role in shifting demand away from grid peak periods (Stopps & Touchie, 2022). This can reduce emissions even further because grids often depend more on fossil fuel peaker plants during these times. This analysis does not include such emissions reductions. 

Solution in Action

References

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Allcott, H., & Rogers, T. (2014). The short-run and long-run effects of behavioral interventions: Experimental evidence from energy conservation. American Economic Review, 104(10), 3003–3037. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.104.10.3003  

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Bielig, M., Kutzner, F., Klingert, S., & Kacperski, C. (2025). Understanding intention to adopt smart thermostats: The role of individual predictors and social beliefs across five EU countries: Proceedings of the 14th International Conference on Smart Cities and Green ICT Systems, 1, 36–47. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.5220/0013356200003953  

Blonz, J., Palmer, K., Wichman, C. J., & Wietelman, D. C. (2025). Smart thermostats, automation, and time-varying prices. American Economic Journal: Applied Economics, 17(1), 90–125. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1257/app.20210618  

Chassin, D. P., Stoustrup, J., Agathoklis, P., & Djilali, N. (2015). A new thermostat for real-time price demand response: Cost, comfort and energy impacts of discrete-time control without deadband. Applied Energy, 155, 816–825. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2015.06.048 

EGIA Contractor University. (2025). Average service life of residential HVAC equipment. Link to source: https://library.mycontractoruniversity.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/10/EGIA-AverageServiceLife.pdf  

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Energy Star. (n.d.). Energy Star® program requirements for connected thermostat products: Partner commitments. Link to source: https://www.energystar.gov/sites/default/files/asset/document/ENERGY%20STAR%20Program%20Requirements%20for%20Connected%20Thermostats%20Version%201.0_0.pdf  

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Falchetta, G., Cian, E. D., Pavanello, F., & Wing, I. S. (2024). Inequalities in global residential cooling energy use to 2050. Nature Communications, 15(1), Article 7874. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-52028-8  

Fine, J. P., & Touchie, M. F. (2020). A grouped control strategy for the retrofit of post-war multi-unit residential building hydronic space heating systems. Energy and Buildings, 208, Article 109604. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2019.109604  

Ge, M., Friedrich, J., & Vigna, L. (2026, April 27). Where do emissions come from? These charts explain greenhouse gas emissions by sector. World Resources Institute. Link to source: https://www.wri.org/insights/4-charts-explain-greenhouse-gas-emissions-countries-and-sectors   

Government of Canada. (2025). Heating and cooling with a heat pump. Link to source: https://natural-resources.canada.ca/energy-efficiency/energy-star/heating-cooling-heat-pump#hds  

Hendron, R., German, A., & Pereira, J. (2021). Modeling savings for Energy Star smart home energy management systems. National Renewable Energy Laboratory. Link to source: https://docs.nlr.gov/docs/fy21osti/79534.pdf 

Henneman, L., Choirat, C., Dedoussi, I., Dominici, F., Roberts, J., & Zigler, C. (2023). Mortality risk from United States coal electricity generation. Science, 382(6673), 941–946. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1126/science.adf4915  

International Energy Agency. (2023). Space heating. Link to source: https://www.iea.org/reports/space-heating#dashboard  

Kini, R. L., Vlachokostas, A., Brambley, M. R., & Rogers, A. (2025). Occupant-centric demand response for thermostatically-controlled home loads. IEEE Transactions on Smart Grid, 16(3), 2234–2245. Link to source: http://doi.org/10.1109/TSG.2025.3540427  

Lee, Z. E., & Max Zhang, K. (2022). Unintended consequences of smart thermostats in the transition to electrified heating. Applied Energy, 322, Article 119384. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2022.119384  

Lee, Z. E., Sun, Q., Ma, Z., Wang, J., MacDonald, J. S., & Max Zhang, K. (2020). Providing grid services with heat pumps: A review. ASME Journal of Engineering for Sustainable Buildings and Cities, 1(1), Article 011007. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1115/1.4045819  

Lu, J., Sookoor, T., Srinivasan, V., Gao, G., Holben, B., Stankovic, J., Field, E., & Whitehouse, K. (2010). The smart thermostat: Using occupancy sensors to save energy in homes. Proceedings of the 8th ACM Conference on Embedded Networked Sensor Systems, SenSys ’10, 211–224. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1145/1869983.1870005

Mourshed, M. (2016). Climatic parameters for building energy applications: A temporal-geospatial assessment of temperature indicators. Renewable Energy, 94, 55–71. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2016.03.021  

Nägele, F., Kasper, T., & Girod, B. (2017). Turning up the heat on obsolete thermostats: A simulation-based comparison of intelligent control approaches for residential heating systems. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 75, 1254–1268. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2016.11.112  

Lockheed Martin Energy. (2017). Home energy management system savings validation pilot [NYSERDA Report 17-16]. New York State Energy Research and Development Authority. Link to source: https://www.ashb.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/IS-2019-05.pdf  

Pang, Z., Chen, Y., Zhang, J., O’Neill, Z., Cheng, H., & Dong, B. (2021). How much HVAC energy could be saved from the occupant-centric smart home thermostat: A nationwide simulation study. Applied Energy, 283, Article 116251. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2020.116251  

Peffer, T., Perry, D., Pritoni, M., Aragon, C., & Meier, A. (2013). Facilitating energy savings with programmable thermostats: Evaluation and guidelines for the thermostat user interface. Ergonomics, 56(3), 463–479. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1080/00140139.2012.718370  

Pew Research Center. (2019). Religion and living arrangements around the world. Link to source: https://www.pewresearch.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/20/2019/12/PF_12.12.19_religious.households.FULL_.pdf  

Pritoni, M., Meier, A. K., Aragon, C., Perry, D., & Peffer, T. (2015). Energy efficiency and the misuse of programmable thermostats: The effectiveness of crowdsourcing for understanding household behavior. Energy Research & Social Science, 8, 190–197. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.erss.2015.06.002  

Pritoni, M., Woolley, J. M., & Modera, M. P. (2016). Do occupancy-responsive learning thermostats save energy? A field study in university residence halls. Energy and Buildings, 127, 469–478. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2016.05.024  

Statistics Canada. (2025). Use of thermostats [Data set]. Link to source: https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/tv.action?pid=3810004901  

Stopps, H., & Touchie, M. F. (2021). Residential smart thermostat use: An exploration of thermostat programming, environmental attitudes, and the influence of smart controls on energy savings. Energy and Buildings, 238, Article 110834. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2021.110834  

Stopps, H., & Touchie, M. F. (2022). Load shifting and energy conservation using smart thermostats in contemporary high-rise residential buildings: Estimation of runtime changes using field data. Energy and Buildings, 255, Article 111644. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2021.111644  

Tamas, R., O’Brien, W., & Quintero, M. S. (2021). Residential thermostat usability: Comparing manual, programmable, and smart devices. Building and Environment, 203, Article 108104. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2021.108104  

World Bank. (n.d.). Mapping energy efficiency: A global dataset on building code effectiveness and compliance [Methodology note]. Link to source: https://www.worldbank.org/content/dam/sites/buildinggreen/doc/building_green_methodology.pdf  

United Nations. (2024). World population prospects 2024 - Special aggregates [Data set]. Link to source: https://population.un.org/wpp/downloads?folder=Special%20Aggregates&group=UN-related%20groups   

U.S. Energy Information Administration. (2018a). Table HC6.1 Space heating in U.S. homes, by housing unit type, 2015 [Data set]. Link to source: https://www.eia.gov/consumption/residential/data/2015/  

U.S. Energy Information Administration. (2018b). Table HC7.1 Air conditioning in U.S. homes by housing unit type, 2015 [Data set]. Link to source: https://www.eia.gov/consumption/residential/data/2015/  

U.S. Energy Information Administration. (2023a). Table HC6.1 Space heating in U.S. homes, by housing unit type, 2020 [Data set]. Link to source: https://www.eia.gov/consumption/residential/data/2020/hc/pdf/HC%206.1.pdf  

U.S. Energy Information Administration. (2023b). Table HC7.1 Air conditioning in U.S. homes, by housing unit type, 2020 [Data set]. Link to source: https://www.eia.gov/consumption/residential/data/2020/hc/pdf/HC%207.1.pdf  

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (2024). Power sector programs—Progress report. Link to source: https://www.epa.gov/power-sector/progress-report  

Wang, C., Pattawi, K., & Lee, H. (2020). Energy saving impact of occupancy-driven thermostat for residential buildings. Energy and Buildings, 211, Article 109791. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2020.109791  

Yuan, Y., Song, C., Gao, L., Zeng, K., & Chen, Y. (2024). A review of current research on occupant-centric control for improving comfort and energy efficiency. Building Simulation, 17(10), 1675–1692. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12273-024-1170-1  

Credits

Lead Fellow

  • Heather McDiarmid, Ph.D

Contributors

  • Ruthie Burrows, Ph.D.

  • James Gerber, Ph.D.

  • Daniel Jasper

  • Alex Sweeney

Internal Reviewers

  • Henry Igugu, Ph.D.

  • Amanda D. Smith, Ph.D.

  • Christina Swanson, Ph.D.

Effectiveness

For heating, 0.23 t CO₂‑eq/yr (20- and 100-yr basis) is reduced for every smart or programmable thermostat in use (Table 1a). This is a weighted global average based on the proportion of homes that use different sources of energy for space heating and assumes an 8% reduction in heating energy with a smart or programmable thermostat (Energy Star, n.d.). 

For cooling, 0.091 t CO₂‑eq/yr is reduced for every smart or programmable thermostat in use (100-year basis, 0.092 t CO₂‑eq/yr on a 20-yr basis) (Table 1b). This is a weighted global average based on regional electricity demand for space cooling and regional electricity grid emission factors. The analysis assumes a 10% reduction in cooling energy with a smart or programmable thermostat (Energy Star, n.d.).

The effectiveness of smart or programmable thermostats at reducing emissions will vary based on total heating and cooling demand. This is a function of climate and building performance as well as occupant behaviors (Hendron et al., 2021). Occupants may, for example, differ in how much they allow temperatures to drift while away or at night, how frequently overrides are used, and the schedules on which programming is based (Hendron et al., 2021).

Table 1. Effectiveness at reducing emissions from heating and cooling.

Unit: t CO₂‑eq /smart or programmable thermostat used to save energy for heating/yr, 100-yr basis

Mean 0.23

Unit: t CO₂‑eq )/smart or programmable thermostat used to save energy on cooling/yr, 100-yr basis

Mean 0.091
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Cost

A smart or programmable thermostat for heating will save an average household US$370/t CO₂‑eq reduced (Table 2a). A smart or programmable thermostat for heating has an average initial cost of US$74, and households that adopt and use these thermostats to save on energy will spend on average US$89 less per year on heating. Assuming a 15-year lifespan (EGIA Contractor University, 2025), this results in a net US$84/yr savings.

We assumed that half of adopting households worldwide purchase a smart or programmable thermostat to use in their homes and the other half already own a smart or programmable thermostat and start using them to save energy with programmed setbacks. This is consistent with US statistics that show 55% of households with heating have a smart or programmable thermostat but only 16% use one to adjust heating temperatures, with most using one set temperature most of the time (U.S. EIA, 2023a). 

A smart or programmable thermostat for cooling will save a household US$230/t CO₂‑eq reduced (see Table 2a). The average initial cost for a smart or programmable thermostat for cooling is US$58, and will save a household an average of US$25/yr on cooling. Assuming a 15-year lifespan, this results in a net US$21/yr savings for the household.

For cooling, the initial cost assumes one-third of homes purchase a smart or programmable thermostat for a central air conditioning system, one-third purchase such a thermostat for a window or portable air conditioner, and one third use an existing smart or programmable thermostat but change behaviors to start using the programming feature. Similar to heating, 60% of U.S. households with cooling have a smart or programmable thermostat but only 15% use one to adjust cooling temperatures (U.S. EIA, 2023b). 

Table 2. Cost per unit climate impact for heating and cooling. Negative values reflect cost savings.

Unit: 2023 US$/t CO₂‑eq , 100-year basis

Mean -370

Unit: 2023 US$/t CO₂‑eq , 100-year basis

Mean -230
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Learning Curve

Insufficient data exist to quantify the learning curve for smart or programmable thermostats. 

Speed of Action

Speed of action refers to how quickly a climate solution physically affects the atmosphere after it is deployed. This is different from speed of deployment, which is the pace at which solutions are adopted.

At Project Drawdown, we define the speed of action for each climate solution as emergency brake, gradual, or delayed.

Use Smart & Programmable Thermostats is a GRADUAL climate solution. It has a steady, linear impact on the atmosphere. 

Caveats

Smart or programmable thermostats may be more difficult to implement in multiunit residential buildings with centralized heating and cooling systems in which units do not have temperature control (Fine & Touchie, 2020). Additionally, some existing space heating systems such as fireplaces and wood stoves may not be compatible with programmable thermostats. 

The Government of Canada (2025) recommends minimizing temperature setbacks for heat pumps or programming the return to normal temperatures in stages to avoid triggering the use of less efficient backup heating systems. 

This solution depends on households programming their thermostat or directing a smart thermostat to save energy. As with any outcome that depends on behavior change, post-intervention persistence can decay over time (Allcott & Rogers, 2014). Comfort concerns, changes to schedules, low perceived benefits, and lack of perceived control over heating and cooling systems are common reasons why households inactivate thermostat programming (Heatherly et al., 2023; Peffer et al., 2013; Pritoni et al., 2015; Stopps & Touchie, 2021). 

Some studies show little to no change in energy use with programmable thermostats, particularly if the thermostats are not easy to use (Peffer et al., 2013). Energy savings setbacks are more likely to be used with smart thermostats than programmable ones (Stopps & Touchie, 2021; Tamas et al., 2021), likely because of improved ease of use and increased automation. 

Use of smart and programmable thermostats reduces the emissions from operating buildings. However, these reductions pale in comparison to those offered by heat pumps and decarbonizing the electricity sector by adopting solutions such as distributed solar PV, utility-scale solar PV, onshore wind, and offshore wind.

Current Adoption

We estimated that 140 million households worldwide use smart or programmable thermostats to save energy for heating (Table 3a) and 30 million use them to save energy for cooling (Table 3b). 

The climate impact of this solution depends on households not only adopting the technology, but also using it to regularly adjust temperatures with the goal of saving energy. Where only adoption values exist, we assumed use patterns are similar to those in the United States, where 25–29% households that own a smart or programmable thermostat are using the programming feature (U.S. EIA, 2023a; U.S. EIA, 2023b).

For adoption, we estimated the number of households with smart or programmable thermostats in high-income countries separately from low- and middle-income countries and combined them to get a global total. In each case, we applied the average smart or programmable thermostat use rate for the group of countries to their estimated number of households that require heating or cooling. 

These estimates are based on data from seven studies covering different geographies and spanning 2017–2025. 

Table 3. Current adoption level (2025).

Unit: smart or programmable thermostats used for the purposes of saving energy on heating 

Total 140,000,000

Unit: smart or programmable thermostats used for the purposes of saving energy on cooling

Total 30,000,000
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Adoption Trend

We estimate that globally, each year 1.4 million households start using smart or programmable thermostats to save on heating (Table 4a) and 0.60 million households start using them to save on cooling (Table 4b).

These data are based on surveys for heating and cooling covering 2015–2020 in the United States (U.S. EIA 2018b, 2018a, 2023b, 2023a) and 2007–2023 in Canada (Statistics Canada, 2025). Due to lack of data, we were not able to estimate adoption trends for low- and middle-income countries, and assumed the trend is negligible. 

Table 4. Current adoption trend (2007–2023).

Unit: smart or programmable thermostats put to use for saving energy on heating/yr 

Total 1,400,000

Unit: smart or programmable thermostats put to use for saving energy on cooling/yr

Total 600,000
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Adoption Ceiling

If every household that currently relies on heating were to adopt and use smart or programmable thermostats to save energy, the total adoption would be 650 million households (Table 5a). This is based on the IEA’s estimate that 40% of households worldwide require space heating (World Bank, n.d.), combined with regional population estimates (United Nations, 2024), and estimates for household sizes by region (Pew Research Center, 2019).

Similarly for cooling, if every household that currently uses air conditioning were to adopt and use smart or programmable thermostats to save energy, the total adoption would be 580 million households (Table 5b). This is based on Falchetta et al.’s (2024) estimate that 35% of households worldwide currently have space cooling, combined with population and household size estimates (Pew Research Center, 2019; United Nations, 2024). This analysis does not reflect anticipated growing demand for space cooling with rising populations, rising affluence in low- and middle-income countries, and rising temperatures (Falchetta et al., 2024).

Table 5. Adoption ceiling: upper limit for adoption level.

Unit: smart or programmable thermostats put to use for saving energy on heating

Total 650,000,000

Unit: smart or programmable thermostats put to use for saving energy on cooling

Total 580,000,000
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Achievable Adoption

For heating, we estimate that use of smart or programmable thermostats to save on energy could reach 290 to 510 million households globally (Table 6a). In high income countries, this assumes 65–100% of households with heating needs adopt and use thermostats to save energy. At the low end, this represents the reported rate of regular setback use for heating homes in the state of New York (Lockheed Martin Energy, 2017), and we assume all heating households could program thermostats to save energy at the high end. In low and middle income countries, we assume 16–48% of households with heating needs adopt and use smart or programmable thermostats to save energy. This is based on today’s estimated smart and programmable thermostat adoption and use rate in the United States and Canada respectively (Statistics Canada, 2025; U.S. EIA, 2023a).

For cooling, we estimate that use of smart or programmable thermostats to save on energy could reach 190–510 million households globally (see Table 6b). In high income countries, this assumes 75–100% of households with cooling systems use thermostats to save energy for cooling. At the low end, this represents the reported rate of regular setback use for cooling homes in the state of New York (Lockheed Martin Energy, 2017) and we assume all households adopt and use smart or programmable thermostats at the high end. In low and middle income countries, we assume households adopt and use smart and programmable thermostats at a rate of 15 and 75%, representing the current rates for the United States and the state of New York, respectively (Lockheed Martin Energy, 2017; U.S. EIA, 2023a).

Table 6. Range of achievable adoption levels. 

Unit: smart or programmable thermostats put to use for saving energy on heating

Current adoption 140,000,000
Achievable – low 290,000,000
Achievable – high 510,000,000
Adoption ceiling 650,000,000

Unit: smart or programmable thermostats put to use for saving energy on cooling

Current adoption 30,000,000
Achievable – low 190,000,000
Achievable – high 510,000,000
Adoption ceiling 580,000,000
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For space heating, current adoption and use of a smart or programmable thermostat to save energy has an estimated climate impact of 0.033 Gt CO₂‑eq/yr globally (100- and 20-year basis; Table 7a). If all households with heating were to adopt and use these thermostats, the estimated climate impact would be 0.15 Gt CO₂‑eq/yr (100- and 20-year basis). We estimate the achievable range to be 0.065–0.12 Gt CO₂‑eq/yr (100- and 20-year basis). 

For space cooling, current adoption and use of a smart or programmable thermostat to save energy has an estimated climate impact of 0.0028 Gt CO₂‑eq/yr globally (100- and 20-year basis;Table 7a). If all households with heating were to adopt and use these thermostats, the estimated climate impact would be 0.052 Gt CO₂‑eq/yr (100-year basis) and 0.053 Gt CO₂‑eq/yr (20-year basis). We estimate the achievable range to be 0.017–0.46 Gt CO₂‑eq/yr (100-year basis) and 0.018–0.47 Gt CO₂‑eq/yr (20-year basis). 

The impact from heating is greater than the impact from cooling because there are more households that use heating and more energy is needed on average per household for heating. 

Table 7. Climate impact at different levels of adoption.

Unit: Gt CO₂‑eq )/yr for heating, 100-yr basis

Current adoption 0.033
Achievable – low 0.065
Achievable – high 0.12
Adoption ceiling 0.15

Unit: Gt CO₂‑eq/yr for cooling, 100-yr basis

Current adoption 0.0028
Achievable – low 0.017
Achievable – high 0.046
Adoption ceiling 0.052
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Additional Benefits

Income and Work

When used as intended, smart and programmable thermostats can save money by saving energy (Blonz et al., 2025; Lu et al., 2010; Wang et al., 2020). The cost savings can vary depending on the type of thermostat, fuel used for heating, geographic location, and sources of energy used to generate electricity. In our estimates, on average, households using smart or programmable thermostats could save US$84/yr on heating and US$21/yr on cooling (see Table 2a). Where time-of-use electricity pricing exists, smart and programmable thermostats can be used to heat or cool a home in advance of peak periods to save even more (Chassin et al., 2015). 

Health

A reduction in energy demand from smart thermostats may lower air pollution and limit exposure to pollutants such as lead and fine particulate matter generated by fossil fuel-based power plants, thereby improving health in nearby communities (Henneman et al., 2023; U.S. Environmental Protection Agency [U.S. EPA], 2024). 

Air Quality

Reducing energy use can reduce climate and air pollutants associated with burning fossil fuels, such as CO₂, nitrogen oxides, methane, lead, and fine particulate matter (U.S. EPA, 2024).

Risks

Smart and programmable thermostats have the potential to increase peak demand for electricity when programmed around common schedules. For example, thermostats may be programmed to raise temperatures in the early morning in winter when electricity grids are already strained (Lee & Max Zhang, 2022). Conversely, grid-integrated thermostats can reduce grid peaks by optimizing when heating or cooling occurs while maintaining occupant comfort (Kini et al., 2025).

Interactions with Other Solutions

Competing

There are diminishing returns as solutions that reduce heating and cooling loads are combined. When smart or programmable thermostats reduce the energy and emissions from heating and cooling, they also reduce the emissions savings these other solutions achieve. 

Consensus
Dashboard

Solution Basics

smart or programmable thermostat programmed to adjust temperatures

t CO₂-eq (100-yr)/unit/yr
0.23
units
Current 1.4×10⁸ 02.9×10¹⁰5.1×10⁸
Achievable (Low to High)

Climate Impact

Gt CO₂-eq (100-yr)/yr
Current 0.033 0.0650.12
US$ per t CO₂-eq
-370
Gradual

CO₂ , CH₄, N₂O

Solution Basics

smart or programmable thermostat programmed to adjust temperatures

t CO₂-eq (100-yr)/unit/yr
0.091
units
Current 3.0×10⁷ 01.9×10⁸5.1×10⁸
Achievable (Low to High)

Climate Impact

Gt CO₂-eq (100-yr)/yr
Current 0.003 0.0170.046
US$ per t CO₂-eq
-230
Gradual

CO₂ , CH₄, N₂O

Trade-offs

When large numbers of households use smart or programmable thermostats to save energy, it can unintentionally cause spikes in electricity demand when heating systems are simultaneously turned on to return temperatures to normal (Lee & Max Zhang, 2022). These spikes can increase overall grid capacity needs and increase demand from fossil-fueled peaking generation. Grid-interactive smart thermostats can reduce these spikes through grid level energy management (Lee et al., 2020). 

Action Word
Use
Solution Title
Smart & Programmable Thermostats
Classification
Highly Recommended

Lawmakers and Policymakers
  • Offer one-stop educational resources for thermostats; offer demonstrations for installation and programming through online videos and in-person demos; clearly state benefits of smart and programmable thermostats, highlighting the cost savings, social benefits, and environmental impacts.
  • Set clear and measurable targets for building efficiency, emissions reduction, and deployment of smart and programmable thermostats.
  • Ensure public procurement standards require smart and programmable thermostats for new construction; require retrofits for existing public buildings.
  • Create regulatory standards and building codes that encourage, incentivize, and/or require the use of smart and programmable thermostats, especially in new construction.
  • Periodically update codes, policies, and public guidance to keep pace with adoption and technology advances.
  • Encourage utilities to incentivize smart and programmable thermostat uptake and use for demand management.
  • Consider offering subsidies that allow for flexible implementation or selective applicability within national systems; ensure subsidy programs are designed based on scientific evidence showing they will have a positive impact on adoption for the intended beneficiaries; target subsidies to low- and middle-income households and simultaneously offer incentives for broadband and digital connectivity; ensure financial incentives cover both new installations and retrofits.
  • Focus broader policies on energy efficiency through the use of intelligent control.
  • Create regulatory standards and building codes that encourage, incentivize, and/or require the use of smart and programmable thermostats, especially in new construction.

Further information:

Practitioners
  • Offer one-stop educational resources for thermostats; offer demonstrations for installation and programming through online videos and in-person demos; clearly state benefits of smart and programmable thermostats highlighting the cost savings, social benefits, and environmental impacts.
  • Offer free or discounted thermostats in electrically heated homes and homes with cooling in exchange for control when the electricity grid is strained. 
  • Ensure customers know they can upgrade their thermostats; provide recommendations to customers on purchasing, installing, and using smart and programmable thermostats; inform customers of public or private incentives for purchases and/or installation; educate customers on the savings, social, and environmental benefits of installation. 
  • Develop or offer easy-to-use smart and programmable thermostat systems; provide scheduled maintenance services for customers; bundle services with heating and cooling system services when possible; ensure customers have the option to review products and services online.
  • Offer thermostats that are compatible with widely used electronic devices such as laptops and smart phones; incorporate Wi-Fi, bluetooth, and the Internet of Things into thermostats, allow for remote control and visibility via smartphone apps.
  • Provide 0% financing options for bundled services, including thermostats and/or related energy efficiency measures.
  • Ease the learning curve for customers by providing clear, concise instructions; ensure elderly customers are comfortable with using the thermostat before leaving after installation.
  • Use customer feedback and work with manufacturers to simplify interface designs and improve functionality. 
  • Advertise for smart and programmable thermostats depicting individual savings on heating and cooling; use social media to reach broader audiences.
  • Create algorithms that can save energy and money for consumers by responding to time of use, customer behavior, and current weather; ensure thermostats have the ability to be updated for future improvements to the software.
  • When installing a thermostat, ensure it is easily accessible and will not be obstructed.
  • Create or join green building certification schemes, green building councils, and/or public-private partnerships that offer information, training, and general support for smart and programmable thermostats.

Further information:

Business Leaders
  • Help socialize the importance of smart and programmable thermostats by incorporating them into corporate net zero strategies; highlight the use of smart and programmable thermostats in public communications.
  • Invest in or offer grants to start-ups seeking to deploy smart and programmable thermostats; invest in research and development to determine optimal user interfaces and/or algorithms for smart and programmable thermostats.
  • Offer pro bono business advice to nonprofit organizations working to improve building efficiency and deploy smart and programmable thermostats.
  • Offer employees information or benefits for upgrading their thermostats at home.
  • Create or join green building certification schemes, green building councils, and/or public-private partnerships that offer information, training, and general support for smart and programmable thermostats.

Further information:

Nonprofit Leaders
  • Offer one-stop educational resources for thermostats; offer demonstrations for installation and programming through online videos and in-person demos; clearly state benefits of smart and programmable thermostats highlighting the cost savings, social benefits, and environmental impacts.
  • Help policymakers set clear and measurable targets for building efficiency, emissions reduction, and the deployment of smart and programmable thermostats.
  • Advocate for and help design regulatory standards and building codes that encourage, incentivize, and/or require the use of smart and programmable thermostats, especially in new construction.
  • Assist regulators in periodically updating codes, policies, and public guidance to keep pace with adoption and technology advances.
  • Advocate for subsidies that allow for flexible implementation or selective applicability within national systems; help ensure subsidy programs are designed based on scientific-evidence showing they will have a positive impact on adoption for the intended beneficiaries; recommend that subsidies be targeted to low- and middle-income households and simultaneously offer incentives for broadband and digital connectivity; help ensure financial incentives cover both new installations and retrofits.
  • Help shift policy frameworks to focus on energy efficiency through the use of intelligent control.
  • Conduct research to improve adoption and use of smart and programmable thermostats, paying close attention to how user interfaces impact behavior.
  • Create or join green building certification schemes, green building councils, and/or public-private partnerships that offer information, training, and general support for smart and programmable thermostats.

Further information:

Investors
  • Finance only new construction and retrofits that use smart or programmable thermostats as well as other energy-efficient heating and cooling technologies and practices.
  • Invest in research and development to improve smart and programmable thermostat design and user interface.
  • Invest in or offer grants to start-ups seeking to deploy smart and programmable thermostats.
  • Issue or buy green bonds to deploy capital to projects that use smart or programmable thermostats and integrate other energy-efficient heating and cooling technologies and practices.
  • Offer preferential loan agreements for developers using smart or programmable thermostats, energy efficient building practices, and other related climate solutions.
  • Create or join green building certification schemes, green building councils, and/or public-private partnerships that offer information, training, and general support for smart and programmable thermostats.

Further information:

Philanthropists and International Aid Agencies
  • Offer one-stop educational resources for thermostats; offer demonstrations for installation and programming through online videos and in-person demos; clearly state benefits of smart and programmable thermostats, highlighting the cost savings, social benefits, and environmental impacts.
  • Offer grants or access to no-interest financing for retrofits and installations of smart and programmable thermostats; ensure financial support for projects involving building retrofits or new construction require the use of smart or programmable thermostats.
  • Offer grants of financing for research and development to improve smart and programmable thermostat design and user interface.
  • Invest in or offer grants to start-ups seeking to deploy smart or programmable thermostats.
  • Issue or buy green bonds to deploy capital to projects that use smart or programmable thermostats and integrate other energy-efficient heating and cooling technologies and practices.
  • Offer preferential loan agreements for developers using smart or programmable thermostats, energy efficient building practices, and other related climate solutions.
  • Help policymakers set clear and measurable targets for building efficiency, emissions reduction, and deployment of smart and programmable thermostats.
  • Advocate for and help design regulatory standards and building codes that encourage, incentivize, and/or require the use of smart and programmable thermostats, especially in new construction.
  • Help regulators periodically update codes, policies, and public guidance to keep pace with adoption and technology advances.
  • Advocate for subsidies that allow for flexible implementation or selective applicability within national systems; help ensure subsidy programs are designed based on scientific evidence showing they will have a positive impact on adoption for the intended beneficiaries; recommend that subsidies be targeted to low- and middle-income households and simultaneously offer incentives for broadband and digital connectivity; help ensure financial incentives cover both new installations and retrofits.
  • Help shift policy frameworks to focus on energy efficiency through the use of intelligent control.
  • Conduct research to improve adoption and use of smart and programmable thermostats, paying close attention to how user interfaces impact behavior.
  • Create or join green building certification schemes, green building councils, and/or public-private partnerships that offer information, training, and general support for smart and programmable thermostats.

Further information:

Thought Leaders
  • Help create educational efforts and resources for smart and programmable thermostats; offer demonstrations for installation and programming through online videos and in-person demos; clearly state benefits of smart and programmable thermostats, highlighting the cost savings, social benefits, and environmental impacts.
  • Help policymakers set clear and measurable targets for building efficiency, emissions reduction, and deployment of smart and programmable thermostats.
  • Advocate for and help design regulatory standards and building codes that encourage, incentivize, and/or require the use of smart or programmable thermostats, especially in new construction.
  • Help regulators periodically update codes, policies, and public guidance to keep pace with adoption and technology advances.
  • Advocate for subsidies that allow for flexible implementation or selective applicability within national systems; help ensure subsidy programs are designed based on scientific evidence showing they will have a positive impact on adoption for the intended beneficiaries; recommend that subsidies be targeted to low- and middle-income households and simultaneously offer incentives for broadband and digital connectivity; help ensure financial incentives cover both new installations and retrofits.
  • Help shift policy frameworks to focus on energy efficiency through the use of intelligent control.
  • Conduct research to improve adoption and use of smart and programmable thermostats, paying close attention to how user interfaces impact behavior.
  • Create or join green building certification schemes, green building councils, and/or public-private partnerships that offer information, training, and general support for smart and programmable thermostats.

Further information:

Technologists and Researchers
  • Develop smart systems that integrate thermostats into a systems level perspective, allowing thermostats to make adjustments based on household energy consumption; design these systems for automatic adjustments to energy usage depending on price signals, energy spikes, appliance use, charging time (e.g., for EVs), weather patterns, occupancy, and related factors; ensure thermostats can automatically update utility rates, weather forecasts, and other data that support cost- and energy-efficient use.
  • Develop smart thermostats and smart home systems that can be grid-integrated for demand management. 
  • Design software for smart and programmable thermostats that provides detailed feedback and individualized suggestions to consumers on energy usage, costs, and estimated savings.
  • Research how users interact with smart and programmable thermostats; examine impact of user interfaces (UIs) on consumer use; develop simplified UIs to facilitate adoption.
  • Research the relationship between household decision-making and smart or programmable thermostat adoption; highlight recommendations for reaching household decision-makers.

Further information:

Communities, Households, and Individuals
  • Upgrade to a smart or programmable thermostat, learn how to use its features, set the programming accordingly, and override the system as little as possible.
  • Consult and work with licensed heating and cooling system installers to determine best available options for smart or programmable thermostats, installation, and maintenance.
  • Make sure your thermostat is installed in a position that allows for easy, unobstructed access.
  • Take advantage of public incentives such as subsidies or low-interest financing for installation, retrofits, and/or maintenance.
  • If provided by your smart thermostat or energy provider, opt into alerts that inform you of abnormally high energy usage which can be an early warning of problems with a heating and cooling system.
  • Take time to understand your smart or programmable thermostat; use profile settings and scheduling to optimize energy and money savings.
  • If you own a smart thermostat, opt into demand response programs to lower energy consumption during peak times; turn on notifications for heating and cooling system maintenance.
  • Share your experience with your neighbors, community, and social networks, and offer help in programming a thermostat where appropriate.
  • If possible, regularly schedule heating and cooling system maintenance and upgrades, including for related equipment such as thermostats. 
  • If smart or programmable thermostats are not an option, manually adjust your thermostat to reduce energy consumption when you’re not home, during peak hours, or to reflect weather conditions; consult your energy provider for tips on thermostat adjustments that can save money and energy.

Further information:

“Take Action” Sources
Evidence Base

Consensus of effectiveness in reducing GHG emissions: High 

There is strong consensus that smart and programmable thermostats will reduce energy use and associated emissions when used to regularly adjust temperatures. 

Numerous studies have demonstrated that energy savings with smart or programmable thermostats can be significant but also vary significantly. For example, Yuan et al.’ (2024)’s review of occupancy-based control studies for heating, air conditioning and ventilation systems found energy savings of 7–44%. (Pang et al., 2021) noted that factors such as climate conditions, building characteristics, occupant behaviors, and setback temperatures can affect energy savings outcomes. 

Pritoni et al. (2016) found that field study outcomes for smart thermostats can differ from the outcomes predicted by models, which are the most common approach to estimating energy savings and, by extension, emissions savings. Factors that can account for some of this discrepancy include comfort preferences, overrides, poor programming, and occupancy (Pritoni et al., 2015; Stopps & Touchie, 2021). 

A major barrier to realizing energy savings with smart or programmable thermostats is getting households to use the programming feature. Bielig et al. (2025) demonstrated that smart thermostat adoption and use are tied to perceived value, usefulness, and ease of use in European Union countries. Meanwhile, Pritoni et al. (2015) highlighted how many U.S. households have a poor understanding of how and when programmed set points save energy, and identified challenges with programming thermostats and comfort concerns as barriers to their use. Smart thermostats that learn occupant behaviors and preferences have shown to be easier to use than programmable thermostats (Tamas et al., 2021) and can achieve higher energy savings with higher thermal comfort (Nägele et al., 2017).

The results presented in this document summarize findings from five original studies, 10 reports, nine databases, two market research reports, and 11 product information web pages. This reflects current evidence from 11 countries, primarily high-income countries, and seven global regions. We recognize this limited geographic scope creates bias, and hope this work inspires research and data sharing on this topic in underrepresented regions.

Updated Date
Coming Soon Label
Coming Soon

Deploy Electric Cooking Equipment

Sector
Buildings & Electricity
Mode
Cut Emissions
Cluster
Shift Energy Sources
Image
Peatland
Coming Soon
On
Description for Social and Search
Deploy Electric Cooking Equipment is a Worthwhile climate solution.
Solution in Action
Speed of Action
Caveats
Risks
Consensus
Trade-offs
Action Word
Deploy
Solution Title
Electric Cooking Equipment
Classification
Worthwhile

Lawmakers and Policymakers

Practitioners

Business Leaders

Nonprofit Leaders

Investors

Philanthropists and International Aid Agencies

Thought Leaders

Technologists and Researchers

Communities, Households, and Individuals
Coming Soon Label
Coming Soon

Deploy Electric Cooking Equipment

Sector
Buildings & Electricity
Mode
Cut Emissions
Cluster
Shift Energy Sources
Image
Coffee pot on an electric stove
Coming Soon
On
Summary

Electric cooking equipment such as electric resistance stoves, induction stoves, and electric ovens can replace fuel-burning cooking equipment and reduce cooking-related GHG emissions, especially in regions with low-emission electricity grids. Cooking with electricity has significant health, safety, and energy efficiency benefits but cost, reliable access to electricity, and cultural compatibility are barriers to adoption. The climate impact varies regionally and data limitations hinder a deeper analysis, so we will “Keep Watching” this potential climate solution.

Description for Social and Search
Deploy electric cooking equipment is a Worthwhile climate solution.
Overview

What is our assessment?

Based on our analysis, deploying electric cooking equipment can reduce emissions while providing significant additional benefits for health. However, the lack of quantitative data on emissions impacts precludes a full analysis. We will “Keep Watching” this potential climate solution. 

Plausible Could it work? Yes
Ready Is it ready? Yes
Evidence Are there data to evaluate it? No
Effective Does it consistently work? No
Impact Is it big enough to matter? No
Risk Is it risky or harmful? No
Cost Is it cheap? ?

What is it?

Using electricity for cooking instead of burning fuels such as liquid petroleum gas (LPG), natural gas, biogas, biomass, charcoal, coal, or kerosene reduces the emissions from burning fuels and can reduce emissions overall when powered by low-emissions electricity. The World Health Organization (WHO, n.d.) estimated that 60% of the global population cooked with gas and 26% cooked with biomass in 2023, while only 8.4% used electricity. Natural gas is the most common fuel for gas cooking in countries where gas distribution infrastructure exists, while liquid petroleum gas is common in low- and middle-income countries (Kojima, 2021). Cooking with electricity typically involves single or multi-element electric resistance or induction cookstoves and electric ovens. The Improve Fuel-Burning Cooking Equipment solution focuses on the adoption of more efficient fueled cookstoves and the switch to cleaner fuels such as LPG as a stepping stone toward eventual electric cooking in low-income communities where reliable and affordable access to electricity is currently lacking (Couture & Jacobs, 2019). 

Does it work?

Cooking with electricity rather than fuels reduces emissions from cooking in areas with low grid emissions (Gould et al., 2023), and relies on well-established technologies. Burning fuels for cooking generates greenhouse gas emissions, and methane leaks from natural gas stoves also contribute to emissions (Lebel et al., 2022). Cooking with electricity can be two or more times more energy efficient than alternatives (Rao & Sagar, 2024). Furthermore, electric cooking equipment is widely available. However, the total emissions impact of shifting to electric cooking equipment will be limited because cooking is a minor contributor to total building energy use worldwide (IEA, 2025). 

Why are we excited?

Electric cooking can have significant benefits for health, safety, and energy use, with modern electric appliances growing in popularity among chefs. Electric cooking equipment also supports all-electric new developments and provides benefits in communities with mini-grids. Burning fuels for cooking contributes to household air pollution (Lebel et al., 2022), which is responsible for an estimated 2.9 million premature deaths per year (WHO, n.d.), and also generates poisonous carbon monoxide. Explosions can also result when fuel leaks from fuel-burning cooking equipment (Lebel et al., 2022). Electric cooking reduces or eliminates these health and safety risks because fuels are not used. Furthermore, electric cooking is more energy efficient (Gould et al., 2023), and therefore releases less unwanted heat to the kitchen area which can improve comfort and the need for air conditioning (Li et al., 2024; Luo et al., 2023). Modern induction cookstoves are gaining in popularity among chefs because they can heat food faster with better temperature control than alternatives (Hawking, 2025) and have the added advantage of being easy to clean. In new developments, electric cooking enables all-electric developments that avoid locking in new fossil-fuel infrastructure (Tan et al., 2022). In some regions in Africa, electric pressure cookers are also a promising solution for some cooking tasks because their lower energy needs make them easier to integrate into mini-grids (Efficiency for Access et al., 2020; Kweka et al., 2021). 

Why are we concerned?

Electric cooking adoption can be hampered by costs, unreliable access to electricity, and cultural preferences. In addition, net emissions can increase when used in areas with high grid emissions, and data for analysis are limited. In high-income countries, switching to electric cooking can trigger additional electrical upgrade costs (Pergantis et al., 2025). In low-income countries, up-front costs are a major barrier, as is reliable, safe, and affordable access to electricity (Das et al, 2025; IEA, 2024). An estimated 750 million people lack access to electricity worldwide, with more than 80% living in Africa (IEA, 2024). Households may also continue to use traditional cooking methods alongside electric appliances due to cultural preferences (Crentsil et al., 2025). The effectiveness of this solution varies regionally, with grid emissions factors, electrical equipment efficiency, and the fuel being substituted all playing a role in whether electric cooking provides net emissions benefits and the magnitude of those benefits. The biggest factor is the emissions due to the grid mix providing electricity, which varies regionally. Finally, a lack of data on the relative proportions of fuels in use today for cooking is a barrier to deeper analysis. 

Solution in Action

References

Cited References

Couture, T. D., & Jacobs, D. (2019). Beyond fire how to achieve electric cooking. [Report.] Hivos people unlimited, World Future Council. Link to source: https://www.worldfuturecouncil.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/Beyond-Fire_-How-to-achieve-electric-cooking.pdf 

Crentsil, A. O., Danquah, S. K., Agbelie, I. S. K., & Bawakyillenuo, S. (2025). E-cooking growth in Ghana: Empirical examination of opportunities and challenges. Clean Energy, 9(6), 96–108. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1093/ce/zkaf034 

Das, I., Galeos, S. K. D., Xue, Y., Zong, J., Lewis, J. J., Fujita‐Conrads, R., Williams, K. N., Troncoso, K., Adair‐Rohani, H., & Jeuland, M. (2025). The costs and benefits of clean cooking policies in low‐ and middle‐income countries under real‐world conditions. Sustainable Development, 33(4), 6108–6123. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1002/sd.3463 

Efficiency for Access, PowerGen, & Modern Energy Cooking Services. (2020). Electric pressure cooking: Accelerating mocrogrid e-cooking through business and delivery model innovations [Report]. Link to source: https://efficiencyforaccess.org/wp-content/uploads/Accelerating-Microgrid-E-Cooking-Through-Business-and-Delivery-Model-Innovations.pdf 

Gould, C. F., Bejarano, M. L., De La Cuesta, B., Jack, D. W., Schlesinger, S. B., Valarezo, A., & Burke, M. (2023). Climate and health benefits of a transition from gas to electric cooking. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 120(34), Article e2301061120. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2301061120 

Hawking, T. (2025). Are induction stoves better? These chefs think so. Popular Science. Link to source: https://www.popsci.com/science/how-induction-stoves-work-better/ 

International Energy Agency. (2024). SDG7: Data and projections. Link to source: https://www.iea.org/reports/sdg7-data-and-projections/overview 

International Energy Agency. (2025). Energy efficiency 2025. Link to source: https://iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/23a80bb2-6985-4507-ab99-c1d700f6548b/EnergyEfficiency2025.pdf 

Kojima, M. (2021). Primary household energy for cooking and heating in 52 developing economies. World Bank. Link to source: https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/2f5b11f1-170f-5c3b-a5f8-25057993f294/content 

Kweka, A., Clements, A., Bomba, M., Schürhoff, N., Bundala, J., Mgonda, E., Nilsson, M., Avila, E., & Scott, N. (2021). Tracking the adoption of electric pressure cookers among mini-grid customers in Tanzania. Energies, 14(15), Article 4574. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.3390/en14154574 

Lebel, E. D., Finnegan, C. J., Ouyang, Z., & Jackson, R. B. (2022). Methane and NO x emissions from natural gas stoves, cooktops, and ovens in residential homes. Environmental Science & Technology, 56(4), 2529–2539. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.1c04707

Li, J., Li, S., Zeng, Y., Zhou, X., Zeng, L., Liu, M., Cao, C., Xia, Y., & Gao, J. (2024). Cooking-related thermal comfort and carbon emissions assessment: Comparison between electric and gas cooking in air-conditioned kitchens. Building and Environment, 265, Article 111992. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2024.111992 

Luo, M., Guo, X., Feng, X., & Chen, W. (2023). Studying occupant’s heat exposure and thermal comfort in the kitchen through full-scale experiments and CFD simulations. Indoor and Built Environment, 32(5), 928–943. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1177/1420326X221147161  

Pergantis, E. N., Reyes Premer, L. D., Lee, A. H., Priyadarshan, Liu, H., Groll, E. A., Ziviani, D., & Kircher, K. J. (2025). Protecting residential electrical panels and service through model predictive control: A field study. Applied Energy, 386, 125528. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2025.125528 

Rao, N. D., & Sagar, A. D. (2024). Electric cooking as a clean and just energy solution. Nature Reviews Earth & Environment, 5(11), 751–752. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1038/s43017-024-00608-z 

Tan, L., Fahollahzadeh, M.H., Taylor, E. (2022). The economics of electrifying buildings: residential new construction. Rocky Mountain Institute. https://rmi.org/insight/economics-of-electrifying-residential new-construction/

World Health Organization. (2025). Household air pollution. World Health Organization. Link to source: https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/household-air-pollution-and-health 

World Health Organization. (n.d.). Cooking fuels: Population with primary reliance on fuels and technologies for cooking, by fuel type, proportions (%). World Health Organization. Link to source: https://www.who.int/data/gho/data/indicators/indicator-details/GHO/proportion-of-population-with-primary-reliance-on-fuels-and-technologies-for-cooking-by-fuel-type 

Other Sources

Aemro, Y. B., Moura, P., & De Almeida, A. T. (2021). Experimental evaluation of electric clean cooking options for rural areas of developing countries. Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments, 43, Article 100954. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seta.2020.100954 

Cozzi, L., Petrelli, M., & Roge, A. (2026, May 13). Energy crisis threatens world’s most vulnerable as cooking fuel shortages grow. International Energy Agency. International Energy Agency. Link to source: https://www.iea.org/commentaries/energy-crisis-threatens-world-s-most-vulnerable-as-cooking-fuel-shortages-grow 

Floess, E., Grieshop, A., Puzzolo, E., Pope, D., Leach, N., Smith, C. J., Gill-Wiehl, A., Landesman, K., & Bailis, R. (2023). Scaling up gas and electric cooking in low- and middle-income countries: Climate threat or mitigation strategy with co-benefits? Environmental Research Letters, 18(3), Article 034010. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/acb501 

Im, H., & Kim, Y. (2020). The electrification of cooking methods in Korea—Impact on energy use and greenhouse gas emissions. Energies, 13(3), Article 680. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.3390/en13030680 

Leach, M., Mullen, C., Lee, J., Soltowski, B., Wade, N., Galloway, S., Coley, W., Keddar, S., Scott, N., & Batchelor, S. (2021). Modelling the costs and benefits of modern energy cooking services—Methods and case studies. Energies, 14(12), Article 3371. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.3390/en14123371 

Odoi-Yorke, F. (2024). A systematic review and bibliometric analysis of electric cooking: Evolution, emerging trends, and future research directions for sustainable development. Sustainable Energy Research, 11, Article 2024. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1186/s40807

Credits

Lead Fellow:

Heather McDiarmid, Ph.D.

Internal Reviewers:

Christina Swanson, Ph.D.

Amanda D. Smith, Ph.D.

Speed of Action
Caveats
Risks
Consensus
Trade-offs
Action Word
Deploy
Solution Title
Electric Cooking Equipment
Classification
Keep Watching

Lawmakers and Policymakers

Practitioners

Business Leaders

Nonprofit Leaders

Investors

Philanthropists and International Aid Agencies

Thought Leaders

Technologists and Researchers

Communities, Households, and Individuals
Updated Date
Coming Soon Label
Coming Soon

Deploy Green Roofs

Sector
Buildings & Electricity
Mode
Cut Emissions
Cluster
Enhance Efficiency
Image
Roof with vegetation
Coming Soon
Off
Summary

Green roofs sequester carbon through photosynthesis and may reduce energy consumption and emissions from cooling and heating the building thanks to the added insulation and the cooling effects of plants. Carbon sequestration by vegetation on green roofs has been documented, and many reports show energy savings from cooling and heating buildings. The effectiveness varies significantly across projects due to building and roof design, plant types, and climates. Green roofs are an attractive solution because they also provide climate adaptation, human health, environmental, and economic benefits. However, their adoption is hampered by high up-front costs, lack of supportive policies, structural and climate limitations, maintenance requirements, and lack of awareness. With the limited data available today we estimate the total impact to be relatively small, but given the significant additional benefits we conclude that this solution is “Worthwhile.”

Description for Social and Search
Increase Green Roofs & Urban Greenspace
Overview

What is our assessment?

There is strong evidence that green roofs sequester carbon and may reduce building energy consumption, although emissions reduction data are limited and vary with geography, roof design, and other factors. The potential climate impact of increasing green roofs is likely too small to be globally significant (>0.1 Gt CO₂‑eq/yr ). The solution, however, is considered “Worthwhile” because it can reduce energy use in buildings and sequester carbon while helping communities adapt to climate change and benefiting human health, the environment, and building owners.

Plausible Could it work? Yes
Ready Is it ready? Yes
Evidence Are there data to evaluate it? Limited
Effective Does it consistently work? Yes
Impact Is it big enough to matter? No
Risk Is it risky or harmful? No
Cost Is it cheap? Yes

What is it?

Vegetation planted on specially engineered rooftops sequesters CO₂ through photosynthesis and provides indirect cooling for buildings through evapotranspiration, reflecting heat back to the atmosphere, and shading. This cooling plus the added insulation inherent in the design can reduce the air conditioning loads of the building, particularly compared to dark rooftop surfaces, and therefore reduce emissions from the electricity used to power cooling systems. Green roofs can also reduce heating energy use and corresponding GHG emissions due to the insulation that soils and plant matter provide. Green roofs are in use in all regions of the globe, but concentrated in high-income countries. 

Does it work?

There is strong evidence that green roofs sequester carbon and can reduce the energy consumption and therefore emissions from cooling and heating buildings. Carbon sequestration by vegetation on green roofs has been documented in several studies. A study in Germany found that plants absorbed 141 g carbon/m2/yr (517 g CO₂ /m2/yr) over a 5-year period. However, carbon sequestration rates are difficult to generalize due to variations in design, plant types, and climates. 

Reported building energy savings from green roofs can range from negligible to 60% or more for cooling. For heating the savings can reach 45% or more, but some studies also show a roughly 10% increase in heating energy use with a green roof. The large variability in energy savings outcomes is due to differences in climate; existing insulation and other properties of buildings; green roof design, vegetation and maintenance practices; and measurement and modeling approaches. The highest energy savings potential has been calculated in dry-winter subtropical highlands for cooling and in humid subtropical climates for heating. Areas with short and mild winters are most likely to see heating energy use increase with green roofs, but these areas often have net energy savings when heating and cooling are combined, and most studies of green roofs show a reduction in heating energy use. 

When combined with the carbon sequestration effect of vegetation, green roofs appear to consistently reduce GHG emissions. 

Why are we excited?

Green roofs and other urban green spaces (see Increase Urban Vegetation) provide valuable climate adaptation, human health, environmental, and economic benefits. Green roofs can help cities adapt to climate change because the vegetation reduces heat exposure during extreme heat, while the soil and root systems absorb stormwater – thereby reducing runoff and flooding risks during extreme rainfall. Green roofs improve human health because vegetation filters the air and reduces noise transmission, and interactions with green spaces, including green roofs, have been shown to improve mental well-being. Green roofs can increase biodiversity and habitat and remove water pollution. They also can increase the property value of a building and prolong the longevity of the roof.

Why are we concerned?

Increasing green roofs can be challenging due to high up-front cost, lack of supportive policies, structural and climate limitations, maintenance requirements, and lack of awareness. A green roof can cost three to six times more than a conventional roof, and although it can save energy for cooling and heating, the returns on investment can be lengthy and savings may not be enough to fully offset the higher costs. In addition, not all roofs can support vegetation, rooftop plants can struggle to survive in hot and dry climates, and green roofs may increase heating energy use in buildings in climates with short and mild winters. A green roof also requires maintenance such as watering, plant care, weed control, pruning, and regular inspections. Finally, a lack of awareness is a major barrier to greater adoption. We also noted a lack of measured, rather than modeled emissions reduction data and on current and potential green roof adoption globally. 

Solution in Action

References

Addo-Bankas, O., Wei, T., Zhao, Y., Bai, X., Núñez, A. E., & Stefanakis, A. (2024). Revisiting the concept, urban practices, current advances, and future prospects of green infrastructure. Science of The Total Environment, 954, 176473. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.176473

 Getter, K. L., Rowe, D. B., Robertson, G. P., Cregg, B. M., & Andresen, J. A. (2009). Carbon Sequestration Potential of Extensive Green Roofs. Environmental Science & Technology, 43(19), 7564–7570. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1021/es901539x

Green roof guide. (n.d.). Green roof maintenance tips. Green Roof Guide. Link to source: https://greenroofguide.com/green-roof-maintenance-tips/

 He, Q., Tapia, F., & Reith, A. (2023). Quantifying the influence of nature-based solutions on building cooling and heating energy demand: A climate specific review. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 186, 113660. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2023.113660

 Knight, T., Price, S., Bowler, D., Hookway, A., King, S., Konno, K., & Richter, R. L. (2021). How effective is ‘greening’ of urban areas in reducing human exposure to ground-level ozone concentrations, UV exposure and the ‘urban heat island effect’? An updated systematic review. Environmental Evidence, 10(1), 12. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1186/s13750-021-00226-y

 Konopka, J., Heusinger, J., & Weber, S. (2021). Extensive Urban Green Roof Shows Consistent Annual Net Uptake of Carbon as Documented by 5 Years of Eddy‐Covariance Flux Measurements. Journal of Geophysical Research: Biogeosciences, 126(2), e2020JG005879. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1029/2020JG005879 

Mihalakakou, G., Souliotis, M., Papadaki, M., Menounou, P., Dimopoulos, P., Kolokotsa, D., Paravantis, J. A., Tsangrassoulis, A., Panaras, G., Giannakopoulos, E., & Papaefthimiou, S. (2023). Green roofs as a nature-based solution for improving urban sustainability: Progress and perspectives. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 180, 113306. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2023.113306

 Perivoliotis, D., Arvanitis, I., Tzavali, A., Papakostas, V., Kappou, S., Andreakos, G., Fotiadi, A., Paravantis, J. A., Souliotis, M., & Mihalakakou, G. (2023). Sustainable Urban Environment through Green Roofs: A Literature Review with Case Studies. Sustainability, 15(22), 15976. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.3390/su152215976

 Shafique, M., Xue, X., & Luo, X. (2020). An overview of carbon sequestration of green roofs in urban areas. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening, 47, 126515. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2019.126515

 Susca, T. (2019). Green roofs to reduce building energy use? A review on key structural factors of green roofs and their effects on urban climate. Building and Environment, 162, 106273. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2019.106273 

Tan, T., Kong, F., Yin, H., Cook, L. M., Middel, A., & Yang, S. (2023). Carbon dioxide reduction from green roofs: A comprehensive review of processes, factors, and quantitative methods. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 182, 113412. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2023.113412

 Tiago, P., Leal, A. I., & Silva, C. M. (2024). Assessing Ecological Gains: A Review of How Arthropods, Bats and Birds Benefit from Green Roofs and Walls. Environments, 11(4), 76. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.3390/environments11040076

 US Environmental Protection Agency. (2025, April 2). Using green roofs to reduce heat islands. US Environmental Protection Agency. Link to source: https://www.epa.gov/heatislands/using-green-roofs-reduce-heat-islands

 Zhang, G., & He, B.-J. (2021). Towards green roof implementation: Drivers, motivations, barriers and recommendations. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening, 58, 126992. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2021.126992

Zhuo, Z., Ran, K., & Dong, L. (2025). Assessing the Effects of Exposure to Green Rooftop Spaces on Perceived Restorativeness: A Field Study in Xiamen, China. Buildings, 15(9), 1427. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15091427

Credits

Lead Fellow

  • Heather McDiarmid, Ph.D.

Internal Reviewer

  • Amanda D. Smith, Ph.D.

  • Christina Swanson, Ph.D.

Speed of Action
Caveats
Risks
Consensus
Trade-offs
Action Word
Deploy
Solution Title
Green Roofs
Classification
Worthwhile

Lawmakers and Policymakers

Practitioners

Business Leaders

Nonprofit Leaders

Investors

Philanthropists and International Aid Agencies

Thought Leaders

Technologists and Researchers

Communities, Households, and Individuals
Updated Date
Coming Soon Label
Coming Soon

Boost Appliance & Equipment Efficiency

Sector
Buildings & Electricity
Mode
Cut Emissions
Cluster
Enhance Efficiency
Image
Washing machines on conveyer belts in a factory
Coming Soon
Off
Summary

Boosting the efficiency of appliances and equipment cuts GHG emissions by reducing the amount of electricity used to operate these devices. Efficiency improvements also lead to reduced peak demand, less strain on the electric grid, and potential utility savings for homeowners due to reduced electricity use. Despite this potential, the increase in the total number of households and average ownership of appliances, especially in low- and middle-income countries, has offset the impact of efficiency gains and resulted in increased electricity consumption from devices globally. We conclude that Boost Appliance & Equipment Efficiency is “Worthwhile” because it functionally reduces the energy consumed by these devices, but significant leaps in efficiency and shifts in user behavior are needed to realize its full potential as a climate solution.

Description for Social and Search
Boosting the efficiency of appliances and equipment cuts GHG emissions by reducing the amount of electricity used to operate these devices.
Overview

What is our assessment?

Based on our analysis, boosting appliance and equipment efficiency is a promising strategy for reducing GHG emissions, but significant leaps in efficiency and shifts in user behavior are needed to counteract the rebound effect and realize its impact. This potential climate solution is “Worthwhile.”

Plausible Could it work? Yes
Ready Is it ready? Yes
Evidence Are there data to evaluate it? Yes
Effective Does it consistently work? Yes
Impact Is it big enough to matter? No
Risk Is it risky or harmful? No
Cost Is it cheap? Yes

What is it?

Appliance and equipment efficiency typically refers to larger devices in residential buildings that run on electricity, such as refrigerators, freezers, washing machines, dishwashers, dryers, and televisions. Energy-efficient appliances or equipment consume less electricity when operated than do inefficient devices. Therefore, boosting appliance efficiency reduces the CO₂, methane, and nitrous oxide emissions from electricity generation. As of 2022, the energy consumed by household appliances globally was more than twice the total energy used to cool both residential and nonresidential buildings, and about half the energy used for heating. To drive higher efficiency for these devices, various countries have established regional energy efficiency standards, rating systems, and labeling programs. Currently, homeowners can readily access a variety of options on the appliance market, and less efficient devices can easily be replaced. However, income levels, especially in low- and middle-income countries, may affect people’s actual ability to purchase certain appliances, although these devices are increasingly becoming cheaper.

Does it work?

Improving the efficiency of appliances and equipment functionally reduces the energy required to run these devices. Various field studies have demonstrated the effect of efficiency gains on lowering electricity consumption. However, the rise in appliance ownership per household and the growing total number of households have offset the collective climate impact expected from efficiency improvements. Globally, the number of households grew from about 1.5 billion in 2000 to 2.2 billion in 2021. Considering the concurrent increase in the global average units owned per household, the number of appliances in use has essentially doubled over the same period. For example, we estimate that over two decades, the number of televisions owned grew from about 1.4 to 2.8 billion units, refrigerators grew from 0.9 to 1.7 billion units, and washing machines grew from about 0.6 to 1.1 billion units. This growth resulted in rising electricity consumption by appliances annually, from 2,880 TWh in 2000 to 5,734 TWh in 2022, which translates to a 99% global increase, largely driven by the Asia-Pacific region.

Why are we excited?

Boosting appliance and equipment efficiency allows homeowners to realize operational cost savings as a result of lower electricity consumption and utility bills. Compared with less efficient devices, using appliances with higher efficiency ratings functionally reduces peak electricity demand, alleviating strain on the electric grid. The advent of smart devices and the Internet of Things (IoT) also helps to automate the operation of these appliances, optimizing their runtime while minimizing the energy consumed. Initial purchasing costs are also declining, making efficient appliances more accessible and affordable. 

Access to high-efficiency appliances also yields additional benefits. For example, access to energy-efficient refrigerators and freezers means that food waste can be minimized with less energy, leading to better food security. Similarly, multimedia equipment, such as television sets, offers access to critical information. Further cuts in GHG emissions are also possible as the electric grid transitions to renewable energy sources.

Why are we concerned?

Despite the potential benefits, the efficiency improvements in household appliances and equipment have not effectively translated into a positive climate impact. This is largely due to the significant rebound effect, or the increase in appliances owned by households as these devices become cheaper and more efficient. Considering the role of appliances in providing a greater quality of life, limiting the increase in appliance purchases is dismissible. The markets for appliances and equipment in many countries also still consist of pre-owned devices, which are less efficient. Some countries, such as Ghana, have established legislation to prevent the importation of pre-owned devices. This approach ensures that the appliances bought by homeowners will run on the newest, most efficient technologies. Recent findings from regions with stringent energy rating systems also suggest that regulations and programs can lead to a 50% cut in the electricity consumed by appliances. Global initiatives, such as the United for Efficiency (U4E) partnership, which seeks to shift appliance markets in low- and middle-income countries into high-efficiency devices, are increasingly needed for the potential energy savings to be realized as a climate solution.

Solution in Action

References

CLASP. (2023). Net zero heroes: Scaling efficient appliances for climate change mitigation, adaptation & resilience. CLASP. Link to source: https://www.clasp.ngo/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/CLASP-COP28-FullReport-V8-012424.pdf

Darshan, A., Girdhar, N., Bhojwani, R., Rastogi, K., Angalaeswari, S., Natrayan, L., & Paramasivam, P. (2022). Energy audit of a residential building to reduce energy cost and carbon footprint for sustainable development with renewable energy sources. Advances in Civil Engineering, 2022(1), 4400874. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1155/2022/4400874

de Ayala, A., Foudi, S., Solà, M. d. M., López-Bernabé, E., & Galarraga, I. (2020). Consumers’ preferences regarding energy efficiency: A qualitative analysis based on the household and services sectors in Spain. Energy Efficiency, 14(1), 3. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12053-020-09921-0

de Ayala, A., & Solà, M. d. M. (2022). Assessing the EU energy efficiency label for appliances: Issues, potential improvements and challenges. Energies, 15(12), 4272. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.3390/en15124272

IEA. (2022, 22 September 2022). Worldwide average household ownership of appliances and number of households in the net zero scenario, 2000–2030. Retrieved April 20, 2025, from Link to source: https://www.iea.org/data-and-statistics/charts/worldwide-average-household-ownership-of-appliances-and-number-of-households-in-the-net-zero-scenario-2000-2030

IEA. (2023). Space cooling: Net zero emissions guide. IEA. Link to source: https://www.iea.org/reports/space-cooling-2

IEA/4E TCP. (2021). Achievements of energy efficiency appliance and equipment standards and labeling programmes. IEA. Link to source: https://www.iea.org/reports/achievements-of-energy-efficiency-appliance-and-equipment-standards-and-labelling-programmes

Lane, K., & Camarasa, C. (2023, 11 July 2023). Appliances and equipment. IEA. Retrieved May 13, 2025, from Link to source: https://www.iea.org/energy-system/buildings/appliances-and-equipment

Stasiuk, K., & Maison, D. (2022). The influence of new and old energy labels on consumer judgements and decisions about household appliances. Energies, 15(4), 1260. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.3390/en15041260

United for Efficiency (U4E). (2025). About the partnership. United Nations Environment Program (UNEP). Retrieved May 15, 2025, from Link to source: https://united4efficiency.org/about-the-partnership/ 

Credits

Lead Fellow

  • Henry Igugu, Ph.D.

Contributors

  • Zoltan Nagy, Ph.D.
  • Amanda D. Smith, Ph.D.

Internal Reviewer

  • Christina Swanson, Ph.D.
Speed of Action
Caveats
Additional Benefits
Risks
Consensus
Trade-offs
Action Word
Boost
Solution Title
Appliance & Equipment Efficiency
Classification
Worthwhile
Updated Date
Coming Soon Label
Coming Soon

Use Low-Flow Fixtures

Sector
Buildings & Electricity
Mode
Cut Emissions
Cluster
Enhance Efficiency
Image
Water streaming from shower head
Coming Soon
Off
Summary

Low-flow fixtures reduce GHG emissions by reducing the volume of hot water used and therefore reducing the emissions from the energy used to heat that water. Reduced water usage also leads to fewer emissions from treating and pumping water for domestic use. Low-flow fixtures are low-cost and simple to install. They generate utility bill savings for households and support sustainable water resource management. Modern quality low-flow fixtures have resolved many of the performance issues of earlier versions. Even with significant adoption, however, the total emissions reduction potential for low-flow fixtures is relatively small. We conclude that, despite its modest emissions impact, Use Low Flow Fixtures is “Worthwhile” due to its relative ease, low cost, and additional benefits.

Description for Social and Search
Low-flow fixtures reduce GHG emissions by reducing the volume of hot water that is used and therefore reducing the emissions from the energy used to heat that water.
Overview

What is our assessment?

Based on our analysis, using low-flow fixtures is a cost-effective strategy for reducing water consumption, but has only a modest impact on GHG emissions. Therefore, this climate solution is “Worthwhile.”

Plausible Could it work? Yes
Ready Is it ready? Yes
Evidence Are there data to evaluate it? Yes
Effective Does it consistently work? Yes
Impact Is it big enough to matter? No
Risk Is it risky or harmful? No
Cost Is it cheap? Yes

What is it?

Low-flow fixtures lessen the total consumption of water by reducing flow rates through a household faucet or shower. Less hot water use means fewer emissions from the energy source used to heat the water, and it also means fewer emissions from pumping and treating tap water. Heating water for showers, sinks, and other domestic appliances is often the second largest source of emissions from buildings after space heating. Modern low-flow showerheads can produce comparable pressure and coverage to traditional showerheads through aeration and/or laminar flow. Aerators for faucets and low-flow showerheads are relatively low-cost investments that users can install themselves.

Does it work?

Low-flow fixtures reduce emissions from heating, delivering, and treating water by reducing hot water consumption. There is ample evidence for water savings with low-flow fixtures, as well as for the linkage between quantity and source of energy used for water heating and GHG emissions. Additionally, there is substantial research on the emissions from treating and pumping water, which can be reduced through water conservation. Low-flow fixtures are readily available, and performance labels are available to help consumers select quality products.

Why are we excited?

Low-flow fixtures conserve water, which reduces emissions, reduces energy demand, saves consumers money, and helps with sustainable water resource management. Households that adopt low-flow fixtures can enjoy significant utility bill savings because these fixtures reduce both water consumption and the energy used to heat water in the home. Faucet aerators also produce a smoother water stream with less splashing, and along with low-flow showerheads, are low-cost and simple to install. Household water conservation practices, such as low-flow fixtures, can help with regional sustainable water resource management and defer infrastructure expansion projects. This is particularly important in areas where water resources are increasingly strained due to climate change, growing populations, and other factors. In some regions, community water conservation efforts have had measurable impacts on water treatment costs, resulting in lower water rates for consumers.  

Why are we concerned?

Even with widespread adoption, low-flow fixtures would have a relatively small impact on GHG emissions. Moreover, the low cost and ease of replacement mean that low-flow fixtures can be easily reverted to less efficient fixtures, eliminating the emissions impact and other benefits. Lastly, although modern quality low-flow showerheads are comparable to traditional fixtures, the poor quality of early low-flow showerheads may have contributed to decreasing levels of adoption in some areas.

Solution in Action

References

Alliance for water efficiency. (2017). Conservation keeps rates low in Tucson, Arizona. Link to source: https://allianceforwaterefficiency.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/06/AWE_Tucson_ConsRates_FactSheet_final.pdf

Dieu-Hang, T., Grafton, R. Q., Martínez-Espiñeira, R., & Garcia-Valiñas, M. (2017). Household adoption of energy and water-efficient appliances: An analysis of attitudes, labelling and complementary green behaviours in selected OECD countries. Journal of Environmental Management, 197, 140–150. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2017.03.070

Environmental protection agency. (2022). WaterSense performance overview: Showerheads. Link to source: https://www.epa.gov/system/files/documents/2022-05/ws-products-perfomance-showerheads.pdf

Kenway, S. J., Pamminger, F., Yan, G., Hall, R., Lam, K. L., Skinner, R., Olsson, G., Satur, P., & Allan, J. (2023). Opportunities and challenges of tackling Scope 3 “Indirect” emissions from residential hot water. Water Research X, 21, 100192. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wroa.2023.100192

Maas, A., Puri, R., & Goemans, C. (2024). A review of residential water conservation policies and attempts to measure their effectiveness. PLOS Water, 3(8), e0000278. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pwat.0000278

Paraschiv, S., Paraschiv, L. S., & Serban, A. (2023). An overview of energy intensity of drinking water production and wastewater treatment. Energy Reports, 9, 118–123. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egyr.2023.08.074

Pomianowski, M. Z., Johra, H., Marszal-Pomianowska, A., & Zhang, C. (2020). Sustainable and energy-efficient domestic hot water systems: A review. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 128, 109900. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2020.109900

Tomberg, L. (2024). Resource conservation through improved efficiency, behavioral change, or both: Willingness to pay for (smart) efficient shower heads. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 203, 107387. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2023.107387

Yateh, M., Li, F., Tang, Y., Li, C., & Xu, B. (2024). Energy consumption and carbon emissions management in drinking water treatment plants: A systematic review. Journal of Cleaner Production, 437, 140688. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2024.140688

Zhou, Y., Essayeh, C., Darby, S., & Morstyn, T. (2024). Evaluating the social benefits and network costs of heat pumps as an energy crisis intervention. iScience, 27(2), Article 2. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.isci.2024.108854 

Credits

Lead Fellow

  • Heather McDiarmid, Ph.D.

Internal Reviewer

  • Christina Swanson, Ph.D.
Speed of Action
Caveats
Additional Benefits
Risks
Consensus
Trade-offs
Action Word
Use
Solution Title
Low-Flow Fixtures
Classification
Worthwhile
Updated Date
Coming Soon Label
Coming Soon

Use Heat Pumps

Sector
Buildings & Electricity
Mode
Cut Emissions
Cluster
Enhance Efficiency Shift Energy Sources
Image
Heat pumps
Coming Soon
Off
Summary

Heat pumps use electricity to efficiently move heat from one place to another. This solution focuses on the replacement of fossil fuel–based heating systems with electric heat pumps. Heat pumps are remarkably efficient because they collect heat from the outside air, ground, or water using a refrigerant and use a pump to move the heat into buildings to keep them warm in colder months. Heat pumps typically replace heating systems such as boilers, furnaces, and electric resistance heaters. Many will also replace air conditioners, because the same pump can move heat out of a building in warmer months. 

Heat stress
Income & work,Health
Description for Social and Search
Heat pumps are a Highly Recommended climate solution. They replace heating systems that burn fossil fuels; many can also provide cooling in hotter months.
Overview

Heat pumps use a refrigerant cycle to move heat. When the liquid refrigerant enters a low pressure environment, it absorbs heat from the surrounding air (air-source heat pumps), water, or ground (ground-source heat pumps) as it evaporates. When the refrigerant vapor is compressed, it condenses back into a liquid, releasing the stored heat into the building. By passing the refrigerant through this cycle, a heat pump can move heat from outside to inside a building. 

Absorbing heat from the outside gets more difficult as temperatures drop. However, modern cold-climate heat pumps are designed to work effectively at temperatures approaching –30 °C (–22 °F) (Gibb et al., 2023). The freezer in your home uses the same technology, moving heat out of the cold box into the warm room to keep your food frozen. In most systems, the refrigerant cycle in a heat pump can be reversed in warmer months, moving heat out of a building to ensure its occupants are comfortable year-round. 

Heat pumps are very efficient at using electricity for heating. This is because they move heat rather than generating heat (e.g., by combustion). For example, a heat pump may have a seasonal coefficient of performance (SCOP) of 3, meaning it can move an average of three units of heat energy for every unit of electrical energy that it consumes. Conventional combustion and electric resistance heaters cannot produce more than one unit of heat energy for every unit of fuel energy or electrical energy provided. 

Heat pump systems may be all-electric or hybrid, where a secondary fossil fuel-based heating system takes over in colder weather. 

A heat pump’s potential to reduce GHG emissions depends on the heating source it replaces and the emissions intensity of the electricity used to run it. When heat pumps replace fossil fuel-based heating, they displace the GHG emissions – primarily CO₂ – generated when the fuel is burned. When replacing electric resistance heaters, heat pumps reduce the GHG emissions from the electricity to power the system because heat pumps are much more energy efficient. As electrical grids decarbonize, the GHG emissions from operating heat pumps will decrease. 

All-electric heat pumps provide the most climate benefit because they can be powered with clean energy, but hybrid heat pumps also play an important emissions-reduction role. Hybrids consist of a smaller electric heat pump system that switches to fuel-based heating systems in colder weather. They may be attractive due to lower up-front costs and because they have lower peak power demand on cold days, but hybrids also have a smaller emissions impact. Our cost and emissions analyses assumed all-electric air-source heat pumps, while the data used in the adoption analysis included all types of heat pumps with the expectation that all-electric versions will dominate in the longer term. 

In this analysis, we calculated effectiveness and cost outcomes from specific countries with high heat-pump adoption (European countries, Canada, the United States, Japan, and China) to avoid comparing research studies that use different assumptions. The analysis used global assumptions for heating system efficiency: 90% for fueled systems (International Gas Union, 2019), 100% for electric resistance (U.S. Department of Energy [U.S. DOE], n.d.), and SCOP of 3 for heat pumps (Crownhart, 2023). We also assumed all existing fueled systems use natural gas, which is currently the dominant fossil fuel used for space heating globally (International Energy Agency [IEA], 2023b). The analysis did not include emissions or costs from cooling but did assume the heat pump is replacing both a heating and cooling system. 

The cost and effectiveness analyses focused on residential heating systems due to availability of data and also because large variations in the cost and size of commercial systems make it more challenging to estimate their global impacts. Commercial heating systems are typically larger than residential systems, and their emissions impacts are expected to be proportionally greater per unit. Cost savings may be different due the greater complexity of heating and cooling systems (Tejani & Toshniwal, 2023). Available data on heat pump adoption, on the other hand, typically include both residential and commercial units. Our adoption analysis therefore included both residential and commercial buildings, with greater adoption assumed in the residential sector. 

References

Air-Conditioning, Heating, and Refrigeration Institute. (2025). AHRI releases November 2024 U.S. heating and cooling equipment shipment data. Link to source: https://www.ahrinet.org/sites/default/files/Stat%20Release%20Nov%2024/November%202024%20Statistical%20Release.pdf 

Asahi, T. (2023, July 3). The role of heat pumps toward decarbonization [PowerPoint slides]. Japan Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Industry Association. Link to source: https://www.jraia.or.jp/english/relations/file/2023_July_OEWG45_JRAIA_side_event_Presentation_4.pdf 

Benz, S. A., & Burney, J. A. (2021). Widespread race and class disparities in surface urban heat extremes across the United States. Earth’s Future, 9(7), Article e2021EF002016. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1029/2021EF002016 

Bloess, A., Schill, W.-P., & Zerrahn, A. (2018). Power-to-heat for renewable energy integration: A review of technologies, modeling approaches, and flexibility potentials. Applied Energy, 212, 1611–1626. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2017.12.073 

Canadian Climate Institute. (2023). Heat pumps pay off [Report]. Link to source: https://climateinstitute.ca/wp-content/uploads/2023/09/Heat-Pumps-Pay-Off-Unlocking-lower-cost-heating-and-cooling-in-Canada-Canadian-Climate-Institute.pdf 

Carella, A., & D’Orazio, A. (2021). The heat pumps for better urban air quality. Sustainable Cities and Society, 75, Article 103314. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2021.103314 

City of Vancouver. (n.d.). Climate change adaptation strategy [Report]. Retrieved September 2, 2025, from Link to source: https://vancouver.ca/files/cov/vancouver-climate-change-adaptation-strategy-2024-25.pdf 

Congedo, P. M., Baglivo, C., D’Agostino, D., & Mazzeo, D. (2023). The impact of climate change on air source heat pumps. Energy Conversion and Management, 276, Article 116554. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2022.116554 

Cooper, S. J. G., Hammond, G. P., McManus, M. C., & Pudjianto, D. (2016). Detailed simulation of electrical demands due to nationwide adoption of heat pumps, taking account of renewable generation and mitigation. IET Renewable Power Generation, 10(3), 380–387. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1049/iet-rpg.2015.0127 

Crownhart, C. (2023, February 14). Everything you need to know about the wild world of heat pumps. MIT Technology Review. Link to source: https://www.technologyreview.com/2023/02/14/1068582/everything-you-need-to-know-about-heat-pumps/ 

Davis, L. W., & Hausman, C. (2022). Who will pay for legacy utility costs? Journal of the Association of Environmental and Resource Economists, 9(6), 1047-1085. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1086/719793 

European Commission. (2022). REPowerEU: Joint European action for more affordable, secure and sustainable energy. Link to source: https://build-up.ec.europa.eu/en/resources-and-tools/publications/repowereu-joint-european-action-more-affordable-secure-and 

European Heat Pump Association. (2024, February 27). Heat pump sales fall by 5% while EU delays action. Link to source: https://www.ehpa.org/news-and-resources/news/heat-pump-sales-fall-by-5-while-eu-delays-action/ 

Gaur, A. S., Fitiwi, D. Z., & Curtis, J. (2021). Heat pumps and our low-carbon future: A comprehensive review. Energy Research & Social Science, 71, Article 101764. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.erss.2020.101764 

Gibb, D., Rosenow, J., Lowes, R., & Hewitt, N. J. (2023). Coming in from the cold: Heat pump efficiency at low temperatures. Joule, 7(9), 1939–1942. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joule.2023.08.005 

Global Petrol Prices. (2024). Retail energy price data. Retrieved Feb 2, 2024, from Link to source: https://www.globalpetrolprices.com/ 

Intergovernmental Panel On Climate Change (Ed.). (2023). Climate change 2022: Mitigation of climate change. Working group III contribution to the sixth assessment report of the intergovernmental panel on climate change (1st ed.). Cambridge University Press. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009157926 

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International Energy Agency. (2022). The future of heat pumps. Link to source: https://iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/4713780d-c0ae-4686-8c9b-29e782452695/TheFutureofHeatPumps.pdf 

International Energy Agency. (2023a). Net zero roadmap: A global pathway to keep the 1.5 °C goal in reach—2023 update (revised version). Link to source: https://iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/8ad619b9-17aa-473d-8a2f-4b90846f5c19/NetZeroRoadmap_AGlobalPathwaytoKeepthe1.5CGoalinReach-2023Update.pdf 

International Energy Agency. (2023b, June 15). Buildings-related energy demand for heating and share by fuel in the Net Zero Scenario 2022-2030. Link to source: https://www.iea.org/data-and-statistics/charts/buildings-related-energy-demand-for-heating-and-share-by-fuel-in-the-net-zero-scenario-2022-2030 

International Energy Agency. (2024). Clean energy market monitor. Link to source: https://iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/d718c314-c916-47c9-a368-9f8bb38fd9d0/CleanEnergyMarketMonitorMarch2024.pdf 

International Energy Agency. (2025). Electricity 2025 (revised version). Link to source: https://iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/0f028d5f-26b1-47ca-ad2a-5ca3103d070a/Electricity2025.pdf 

International Gas Union. (2019). Global gas insights 2019 gas & efficiency. Link to source: https://www.igu.org/advocacy/graphics-data/ggi-energy-efficiency 

International Renewable Energy Agency. (2022). Renewable solutions in end-uses: Heat pump costs and markets [Report]. Link to source: https://www.irena.org/-/media/Files/IRENA/Agency/Publication/2022/Nov/IRENA_Heat_Pumps_Costs_Markets_2022.pdf 

International Renewable Energy Agency. (2024). World energy transitions outlook 2024: 1.5°C pathway [Report]. Link to source: https://www.irena.org/-/media/Files/IRENA/Agency/Publication/2024/Nov/IRENA_World_energy_transitions_outlook_2024.pdf 

Jakob, M., Reiter, U., Krishnan, S., Louwen, A., & Junginger, M. (2020). Chapter 11 - Heating and cooling in the built environment. In M. Junginger & A. Louwen (Eds.), Technological learning in the transition to a low-carbon energy system (pp. 189–219). Academic Press. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-818762-3.00011-X  

Knobloch, F., Hanssen, S. V., Lam, A., Pollitt, H., Salas, P., Chewpreecha, U., Huijbregts, M. A. J., & Mercure, J.-F. (2020). Net emission reductions from electric cars and heat pumps in 59 world regions over time. Nature Sustainability, 3(6), 437–447. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41893-020-0488-7 

Malmquist, A., Hjerpe, M., Glaas, E., Karlsson-Larsson, H., & Lassi, T. (2022). Elderly people’s perceptions of heat stress and adaptation to heat: An interview study. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(7), Article 3775. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19073775 

Mattiuzzi, C., & Lippi, G. (2020). Worldwide epidemiology of carbon monoxide poisoning. Human & Experimental Toxicology, 39(4), 387-392. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1177/0960327119891214 

McDiarmid, H. (2023). An analysis of the impacts of all-electric heat pumps and peak mitigation technologies on peak power demand in Ontario [Report]. Ontario Clean Air Alliance. Link to source: https://www.cleanairalliance.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/12/Heat-Pump-Peak-Report-ONLINE-dec-11.pdf 

McDiarmid, H., & Parker, P. (2024). Retrofitting homes in Ontario entails significant embodied emissions: New policies needed. Climate Policy, 25(3), 388–400. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1080/14693062.2024.2390520 

Renaldi, R., Hall, R., Jamasb, T., & Roskilly, A. P. (2021). Experience rates of low-carbon domestic heating technologies in the United Kingdom. Energy Policy, 156, Article 112387. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2021.112387 

Romanello, M., Walawender, M., Hsu, S.-C., Moskeland, A., Palmeiro-Silva, Y., Scamman, D., Ali, Z., Ameli, N., Angelova, D., Ayeb-Karlsson, S., Basart, S., Beagley, J., Beggs, P. J., Blanco-Villafuerte, L., Cai, W., Callaghan, M., Campbell-Lendrum, D., Chambers, J. D., Chicmana-Zapata, V., … Costello, A. (2024). The 2024 report of the Lancet Countdown on health and climate change: Facing record-breaking threats from delayed action. The Lancet, 404(10465), 1847–1896. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(24)01822-1 

Sandoval, N., Harris, C., Reyna, J. L., Fontanini, A. D., Liu, L., Stenger, K., White, P. R., & Landis, A. E. (2024). Achieving equitable space heating electrification: A case study of Los Angeles. Energy and Buildings, 317, Article 114422. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2024.114422 

Sovacool, B. K., Evensen, D., Kwan, T. A., & Petit, V. (2023). Building a green future: Examining the job creation potential of electricity, heating, and storage in low-carbon buildings. The Electricity Journal, 36(5), Article 107274. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tej.2023.107274 

Tejani, A., & Toshniwal, V. (2023). Differential energy consumption patterns of HVAC systems in residential and commercial structures: A comparative study. International Journal of Advancements in Science & Technology, 1(3), 47–58. 

U.S. Department of Energy. (2022). Residential cold-climate heat pump technology challenge. Link to source: https://www.energy.gov/eere/buildings/articles/residential-cold-climate-heat-pump-technology-challenge-fact-sheet 

U.S. Department of Energy. (n.d.). Electric resistance heating. Retrieved September 2, 2025, from Link to source: https://www.energy.gov/energysaver/electric-resistance-heating 

U.S. Energy Information Administration. (2023). Updated buildings sector appliance and equipment costs and efficiencies [Report]. Link to source: https://www.eia.gov/analysis/studies/buildings/equipcosts/pdf/full.pdf 

Van Someren, C., Visser, M., & Slootweg, H. (2021). Impacts of electric heat pumps and rooftop solar panels on residential electricity distribution grids. 2021 IEEE PES Innovative Smart Grid Technologies Europe (ISGT Europe), 01–06. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1109/ISGTEurope52324.2021.9640090 

Wilson, E. J. H., Munankarmi, P., Less, B. D., Reyna, J. L., & Rothgeb, S. (2024). Heat pumps for all? Distributions of the costs and benefits of residential air-source heat pumps in the United States. Joule, 8(4), 1000–1035. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joule.2024.01.022 

Zahiri, S., & Gupta, R. (2023). Examining the risk of summertime overheating in UK social housing dwellings retrofitted with heat pumps. Atmosphere, 14(11), Article 1617. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos14111617 

Zhang, Q., Zhang, L., Nie, J., & Li, Y. (2017). Techno-economic analysis of air source heat pump applied for space heating in northern China. Applied Energy, 207, 533–542. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2017.06.083 

Zhou, M., Liu, H., Peng, L., Qin, Y., Chen, D., Zhang, L., & Mauzerall, D. L. (2022). Environmental benefits and household costs of clean heating options in northern China. Nature Sustainability, 5(4), 329–338. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41893-021-00837-w 

Credits

Lead Fellow

  • Heather McDiarmid, Ph.D.

Contributors

  • Stephen Agyeman, Ph.D.

  • Ruthie Burrows, Ph.D.

  • James Gerber, Ph.D.

  • Sarah Gleeson, Ph.D.

  • Yusuf Jameel, Ph.D.

  • Daniel Jasper

  • Jason Lam

  • Cameron Roberts, Ph.D.

  • Alex Sweeney

  • Eric Wilczynski

Internal Reviewers

  • Aiyana Bodi

  • Hannah Henkin

  • Jason Lam

  • Zoltan Nagy, Ph.D.

  • Ted Otte

  • Amanda D. Smith, Ph.D.

Effectiveness

Our analysis showed that each all-electric residential heat pump for space heating reduces emissions by an average of 0.97 t CO₂‑eq /heat pump system/yr (20-yr and 100-yr basis, Table 1). 

Heat pumps reduce emissions by reducing the amount of fossil fuels burned for space heating or by reducing the use of less efficient electric resistance heating. Operating a heat pump generates no on-site emissions except refrigerant leaks, which are addressed by the Improve Refrigerant Management solution. Our analysis included the emissions from the electricity used to power heat pumps. Thus, the emissions reduction from heat pump adoption is expected to improve as electricity generation incorporates more renewable energy (Knobloch et al., 2020). 

There are significant regional differences in heat pump effectiveness due to the electricity mix, climate, and types of heating systems used today (Knobloch et al., 2020). The global average is weighted based on regional heating requirements and existing heating technologies. 

We did not quantify the reduction in pollutants such as nitrogen oxides, sulfur oxides, and particulate matter, which are released when fossil fuels are burned for space heating. We also refrained from estimating the global warming impacts of refrigerant leaks associated with the use of heat pumps, which is addressed by our Improve Refrigerant Management solution, or natural gas leaks associated with the use of fossil fuels for heating. 

Table 1. Effectiveness at reducing emissions from space heating.

Unit: t CO₂‑eq/heat pump system/yr, 100-yr basis

Mean 0.97
Left Text Column Width
Cost

A residential air-source heat pump has a mean initial installed cost of US$6,800 and an estimated US$540/yr operational cost for heating. Over a 15-year lifespan, this results in a net cost of US$990/yr. A heat pump generally replaces both a heating and cooling system with a combined mean installed cost of US$5,300. Operating a baseline heating system costs US$830/yr (operational cooling cost was not included in this analysis). Over a 15-year lifespan, the baseline case has a net cost of US$1,180/yr. This results in a net US$190 savings for households that switch to a heat pump. This translates to US$200 savings/t CO₂‑eq reduced (Table 2).

These values include the average annual cost to operate the equipment for heating and the annualized up-front cost of a heat pump relative to both a heating and cooling system that it replaces. There can be significant variability in the up-front cost of equipment based on the type of heat pump installed, the size of the building, and the climate in which it is designed to operate. We assumed the cost to operate the equipment for cooling to be the same with heat pumps and the air conditioners they replace. 

There are significant regional differences in the operational cost of heating systems due to climate, utility rates, and the heating systems in use today. The global average outcomes described here are weighted averages from Europe, Canada, the United States, China, and Japan based on regional heating requirements and existing heating technologies. 

Utility cost estimates are from June 2023 (Global Petrol Prices, 2024) and may vary substantially over time due to factors such as volatile fossil fuel prices, changing carbon prices, and heat pump incentives. Additional installation costs, such as upgrades to electrical systems, ductwork, or radiators, are not included. 

Table 2. Cost per unit climate impact. Negative values reflect cost savings.

Unit: 2023 US$/t CO₂‑eq , 100-yr basis

Mean –200
Left Text Column Width

Methods and Supporting Data

Methods and Supporting Data

Learning Curve

Insufficient data exist to quantify the learning curve for heat pumps. 

The cost of installing a heat pump includes both equipment costs and the labor cost of installation. According to the U.S. Energy Information Administration ([U.S. EIA] 2023), retail equipment costs are 60–80% of the total installed cost of residential air-source heat pumps (central and ductless). 

Equipment costs can decrease with economies of scale and as local markets mature, but may be confounded by technological advances as well as equipment and/or refrigerant regulations that can also increase costs (IEA, 2022). European estimated learning rates for heat pump equipment costs range from 3.3% for ground-source heat pumps (Renaldi et al., 2021) to 18% for air-source heat pumps (Jakob et al., 2020). Ease and cost of installation is a research and development goal for manufacturers (IEA, 2022). 

The installed cost is also affected by rising labor costs and projected labor shortages (IEA, 2022). Renaldi et al. (2021) showed negative learning rates for the total installed costs in the United Kingdom due to increasing installation costs: –2.3% and –0.8% for air-source and ground-source heat pumps, respectively.

Heat pump manufacturer efforts to improve the performance of the technology may impact learning curves as well. In North America, the Residential Heat Pump Technology Challenge has supported the development of heat pumps with improved cold-climate performance (U.S. DOE, 2022). 

Speed of Action

Speed of action refers to how quickly a climate solution physically affects the atmosphere after it is deployed. This is different from speed of deployment, which is the pace at which solutions are adopted.

At Project Drawdown, we define the speed of action for each climate solution as emergency brake, gradual, or delayed.

Use Heat Pumps is a GRADUAL climate solution. It has a steady, linear impact on the atmosphere. The cumulative effect over time builds as a straight line.

Caveats

Heat pumps can increase demand for electricity and can therefore increase demand for fossil fuel-based power generation. In areas where power generation relies heavily on fossil fuels, heat pumps may generate more emissions than gas heating systems. As the electricity sector adopts more renewables and phases out fossil fuel-based generation, the emissions impact of heat pumps will decrease. Once a building has been designed or retrofitted to accommodate a heat pump it is likely that new heat pumps will be installed at the end of equipment life, perpetuating the benefit.

Efforts are underway to retrofit buildings by improving insulation, air-sealing, and upgrading windows. When done alongside heat pump adoption, retrofits can reduce the size of heat pump needed and increase total energy, emissions, and cost savings. 

As heat pump adoption grows, so too will the manufacture of refrigerants, some of which have high global warming potentials when they escape to the atmosphere. See Deploy Alternative Refrigerants and Improve Refrigerant Management solutions for more on accelerating change in this sector.

Current Adoption

Our analysis suggests that 130 million heat pumps for heating are currently in operation primarily based on data in Europe, Canada, the United States, China, and Japan (Table 3). These include both all-electric heat pumps and hybrid heat pumps. The IEA (2023a) estimated that 12% of global space heating demand was met by heat pumps in 2022. 

This value is based on market reports and national data sources plus IEA (2022) estimates of total GW of installed capacity. To convert installed capacity to the number of heat pumps, we used the median from the range of suggested average capacities (7.5 kW for Europe and North America, 4 kW in Japan and China, 5 kW global average). In Japan, where heat pump units typically heat only one room, we assumed 2.4 units per heat pump (International Renewable Energy Agency [IRENA], 2022).

Table 3. Current heat pump adoption level (2020–2022).

Unit: Heat pump systems in operation

Mean 130,000,000
Left Text Column Width
Adoption Trend

Our estimates put the median adoption trend at 17 million new all-electric and hybrid heat pumps in operation per year (Table 4). This analysis is based on product shipment data (used as a proxy for installed heat pumps), market reports, national statistics, and IEA data for growth in installed capacity. For the IEA data (2010–2023), we assumed a global average of 5 kW of heat capacity per heat pump unit (IEA, 2024).

Shipment and market analysis reports consistently show growing markets for heat pumps in much of the world (Asahi, 2023; European Heat Pump Association, 2024; IEA, 2024). In the United States, shipments of heat pumps have outnumbered gas furnaces since at least 2022 (Air-Conditioning, Heating, and Refrigeration Institute, 2025).

Table 4. Heat pump adoption trend (2010–2023).

Unit: Heat pump systems in operation/yr

25th percentile 12,000,000
Mean 15,000,000
Median (50th percentile) 17,000,000
75th percentile 18,000,000
Left Text Column Width
Adoption Ceiling

Our adoption ceiling is set at 1.200 billion heat pumps for space heating by 2050 (Table 5), most of which are expected to be in residential buildings. This is based on the IEA’s Net Zero Roadmap projection that heat pumps will represent 6,500 GW of heating capacity globally by 2050, covering 55% of space heating demand (IEA, 2023a). Our adoption ceiling assumes all-electric heat pumps cover all space heating demand. 

We assumed that average heat pump sizes (capacities) will increase over time as heat pumps cover a greater portion of a building’s heating load and as more commercial buildings with larger heating loads install heat pumps. Using a global average of 10 kW per heat pump, the IEA projections imply 650 million heat pumps will be in operation by 2050 with the technical adoption ceiling for 1,200 million heat pumps if all heating demand were met by heat pumps.

Table 5. Heat pump adoption ceiling: upper limit for adoption level.

Unit: Heat pump systems in operation by 2050

Mean 1,200,000,000
Left Text Column Width
Achievable Adoption

We estimate the achievable range for heat pump adoption to be 600–960 million heat pumps in operation by 2050 (Table 6).

Most existing space heating systems will be replaced at least once between now and 2050 because this equipment typically has lifetimes of 15–30 years (U.S. EIA, 2023). Policies that encourage high efficiency heat pumps alongside insulation upgrades have the potential to provide lifetime savings, greater comfort, and energy efficiency benefits (Wilson et al., 2024). Given the available timelines and potential benefits, near full adoption is technically feasible. 

We have set the Achievable – High heat pump adoption at 80% of the adoption ceiling to account for systems that are difficult to electrify due to very cold climates, policy, economic barriers, and grid constraints. This high achievable value assumes that some systems may be replaced before their end of life to meet climate and/or financial goals. 

We have set the Achievable – Low heat pump adoption at 50% of the adoption ceiling. This is roughly consistent with the current adoption trend continuing out to 2050. 

Our heat pump units adopted include both all-electric and hybrid heat pumps. This analysis assumes that hybrid heat pumps will become less common as fuels are phased out and that all-electric heat pumps will dominate by 2050. 

Table 6. Range of achievable adoption levels.

Unit: Heat pump systems installed

Current adoption 130,000,000
Achievable – low 600,000,000
Achievable – high 960,000,000
Adoption ceiling 1,200,000,000
Left Text Column Width

Our estimates show the global impact of existing heat pumps for space heating to be a reduction of 0.13 Gt CO₂‑eq/yr (100- and 20-yr basis) based on current adoption and today’s electricity grid emissions (Table 7). Because electricity grid emissions are decreasing for each kWh of electricity generated (IEA, 2025), the actual impact will be greater than our estimates when future electricity generation emissions are lower.

For the adoption ceiling, assuming heat pumps supply all of the IEA’s projected global heating demand in 2050 (IEA, 2023a), 1.2 Gt CO₂‑eq/yr (100- and 20-yr basis) could be avoided per year with today’s electricity grid emissions.

A high-end achievable target is 80% of the adoption ceiling, accounting for systems that might continue to use fossil fuels for heating due to factors such as cold climates, economic barriers, and grid constraints. This would result in avoiding 0.93 Gt CO₂‑eq/yr (100- and 20-yr basis) with today’s electricity grid emissions. 

A low-end achievable target is 50% of the adoption ceiling, roughly equivalent to heat pump adoption continuing at today’s rate. This would result in avoiding 0.58 Gt CO₂‑eq/yr (100- and 20-yr basis) with today’s electricity grid emissions. 

Table 7. Climate impact at different levels of heat pump systems adoption.

Unit: Gt CO₂‑eq/yr, 100-yr basis

Current adoption 0.13
Achievable – low 0.58
Achievable – high 0.93
Adoption ceiling 1.2
Left Text Column Width
Additional Benefits

Heat Stress

Heat waves and extreme heat are becoming increasingly significant factors of morbidity and mortality worldwide (Romanello et al., 2024). Some buildings that replace heating systems with heat pumps will gain access to cooling (Congedo et al., 2023; Wilson et al., 2024; Zhang et al., 2017). This can provide protection from heat stress in regions experiencing increasingly hotter summers (where air conditioning was not previously necessary) and for populations that are vulnerable to heat stress, such as the elderly (Malmquist et al., 2022). Some jurisdictions incentivize heat pumps for this reason. For example, the United Kingdom plans to install 600,000 heat pumps by 2028 (Zahiri & Gupta, 2023), and local climate adaptation plans in Canada recommend the installation of heat pumps to provide space cooling that can reduce morbidity and mortality during heat waves (Canadian Climate Institute, 2023; City of Vancouver, n.d.). Because exposure to extreme heat is disproportionately higher for minority communities – particularly in urban environments – access to cooling has important implications for environmental justice (Benz & Burney, 2021). 

Income and Work

Installing heat pumps can lead to greater household savings on electricity. Research has shown that across the United States, heat pumps can reduce electricity bills for 49 million homes with an average savings of US$350–600 per year, depending on the efficiency of the heat pump (Wilson et al., 2024). Wilson et al. (2024) found that higher efficiency heat pumps could be cost-effective for about 65 million households in the United States. Heat pumps also create jobs (Sovacool et al., 2023). In its post-COVID-19 recovery plan, the IEA (2020) estimated that every US$1 million investment in heat pumps could generate 9.1 new jobs and reduce 0.8 jobs in the fossil fuel industry. About half of the new jobs will be in manufacturing, with the remaining distributed between installation and maintenance.

Health

Burning fossil fuels for heating directly emits health-harming particulates and can generate carbon monoxide. Replacing fossil gas heating with heat pumps can reduce air pollution (Carella & D’Orazio, 2021) and contribute to improving health outcomes (Zhou et al., 2022). A study in China showed that as the power grid moves to incorporate renewable energy, the air quality and health benefits of heat pumps will increasingly outweigh the benefits of gas heaters (Zhou et al., 2022). The risk of carbon monoxide poisoning also decreases in buildings that switch from fuel-burning space heating to heat pumps. In buildings that burn fuels for applications such as space heating, carbon monoxide can pose serious health risks, including poisoning and death (Mattiuzzi & Lippi, 2020). 

Risks

Heat pumps contain refrigerants that often have high global warming potentials. Refrigerant leaks can occur during installation, operation, and end of life (McDiarmid & Parker, 2024). As more heat pumps are adopted, there is a risk of increased emissions from refrigerant leaks during operation as well as refrigerant release at the end of equipment life. Alternate refrigerants with lower global warming potentials are being phased in due to an international agreement to reduce hydrofluorocarbons, including many refrigerants (Kigali Amendment). 

Higher rates of heat pump installation will require upscaling heat pump manufacturing and training, plus certification of skilled labor to install them. Skilled labor shortages are already creating bottlenecks for heat pump adoption in some countries, some of which can be met by reskilling other heating technicians (IEA, 2022).

Interactions with Other Solutions

Reinforcing

Advancements in heat pump technology will support the development and adoption of heat pump technology for industrial applications.

The increased adoption of heat pumps will increase the market for alternative refrigerants and refrigerant management.

Competing

Heat pumps reduce the emissions from heating and cooling buildings. This reduces the effectiveness of technologies that reduce heating and/or cooling demands.

Adoption of heat pumps for space heating is likely to generate seasonal peaks in power demand during cold days that may require building out extra generating capacity that decrease grid efficiency (Bloess et al., 2018). Heat pumps can compete with electric cars for power during peak times (Van Someren et al., 2021).

Dashboard

Solution Basics

heat pump systems

t CO₂-eq (100-yr)/unit/yr
0.97
units
Current 1.3×10⁸ 06.0×10⁸9.6×10⁸
Achievable (Low to High)

Climate Impact

Gt CO₂-eq (100-yr)/yr
Current 0.13 0.580.93
US$ per t CO₂-eq
-200
Gradual

CO₂ , CH₄, N₂O

Trade-offs

Enhanced grid infrastructure will be required to support widespread building electrification and the greater demand for electricity, especially on cold days when heat pumps are less efficient at moving heat (Cooper et al., 2016). Demand-side management, thermal storage, home batteries, bidirectional chargers, and greater adoption of ground-source heat pumps can all help to reduce this increased demand (Cooper et al., 2016; McDiarmid, 2023).

In general, heat pumps have higher up-front costs than do fueled alternatives but will save a building owner money over the lifetime of the system. This can create economic barriers to accessing the benefits of heat pumps, with low-income homeowners and renters who pay for their utilities being particularly vulnerable to being left behind in the transition (Sandoval et al., 2024). Equity advocates are also concerned that the cost of maintaining gas and other fossil fuel infrastructure may increasingly fall on lower-income building owners who struggle to afford the upfront cost of electrifying with heat pumps (Davis & Hausman, 2022). 

°C days
015,000

Space heating demand (18 °C basis)

Heating degree days are a measure of total space-heating demand to maintain an indoor temperature above 18 °C. Here we show annual average heating degree days for the decade ending in 2025.

Copernicus Climate Change Service. (2023). ERA5 hourly data on single levels from 1940 to present [Data set]. Copernicus Climate Change Service (C3S) Climate Data Store (CDS). Retrieved January 13, 2026 from Link to source: https://doi.org/10.24381/cds.adbb2d47     

Hersbach, H., Bell, B., Berrisford, P., Hirahara, S., Horányi, A., Muñoz‐Sabater, J., Nicolas, J., Peubey, C., Radu, R., Schepers, D., Simmins, A., Soci, C., Abdalla, S., Abellan, X., Balsamo, G., Bechtold, P., Biavati, G., Bidlot, J., Bonavita, M., … Thépaut, J. N. (2020). The ERA5 global reanalysis. Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society, 146(730), 1999–2049. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.3803  

°C days
015,000

Space heating demand (18 °C basis)

Heating degree days are a measure of total space-heating demand to maintain an indoor temperature above 18 °C. Here we show annual average heating degree days for the decade ending in 2025.

Copernicus Climate Change Service. (2023). ERA5 hourly data on single levels from 1940 to present [Data set]. Copernicus Climate Change Service (C3S) Climate Data Store (CDS). Retrieved January 13, 2026 from Link to source: https://doi.org/10.24381/cds.adbb2d47     

Hersbach, H., Bell, B., Berrisford, P., Hirahara, S., Horányi, A., Muñoz‐Sabater, J., Nicolas, J., Peubey, C., Radu, R., Schepers, D., Simmins, A., Soci, C., Abdalla, S., Abellan, X., Balsamo, G., Bechtold, P., Biavati, G., Bidlot, J., Bonavita, M., … Thépaut, J. N. (2020). The ERA5 global reanalysis. Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society, 146(730), 1999–2049. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.3803  

Maps Introduction

In this solution, heat pumps replace space-heating options that rely on fossil fuels. This primarily applies to North America, Asia, and Europe. Limited data are available for some regions, so this analysis focuses on European countries, Canada, the United States, Japan and China. 

The effectiveness of heat pumps at reducing GHG emissions is influenced by the heating needs of the region and the generation mix of the electricity grid. Areas with higher heating needs will generally show greater emissions reduction because more energy is needed to keep buildings warm. However, this is partially offset because heat pumps are less energy efficient on colder days. The local electricity grid mix matters because heat pumps are powered by electricity. Given the same outside temperature, regions with a largely emissions-free grid (e.g., France or Canada) will have higher emissions impacts from heat pump adoption than areas where electricity is  largely generated from fossil fuels (e.g., China). The type of heat pumps (all-electric vs. hybrid) best suited to each region depends on technological and economic factors.

Action Word
Use
Solution Title
Heat Pumps
Classification
Highly Recommended

Lawmakers and Policymakers
  • Introduce zero-carbon ready building codes, clearly designating heat pumps as the default for all new buildings.
  • Incentivize purchases with grants, loans, or tax rebates.
  • Increasing training and support for heat pump installers.
  • Expand the electrical grid and increase renewable energy generation.
  • Streamline permitting processes.
  • Incentivize complementary solutions such as better insulation, thermal storage, and air sealing.
  • Institute a clean heat standard (similar to a renewable energy standard) with a well-defined implementation timeline.
  • Launch performance labels for heating technology.
  • Roll out new energy efficiency programs.

Further information:

Practitioners
  • Commit to zero-carbon construction, clearly designating heat pumps as the default for all new buildings.
  • Increase the available workforce by encouraging trade organizations to promote career and workforce development programs.
  • Design heat pumps that are simpler, faster, and cheaper to install.
  • Educate customers on the benefits and train them on usage.
  • Connect with users and early adopters to understand and adapt to consumer sentiment.
  • Create appealing incentives and financing programs.
  • Partner with builders and developers to improve product adoption and increase market demand for heat pumps.

Further information:

Business Leaders
  • Commit to zero-carbon construction, clearly designating heat pumps as the default for all new buildings.
  • Deploy heat pumps in all owned and operated facilities.
  • Encourage building owners and managers to switch to heat pumps in leased facilities.
  • Promote the benefits of heat pumps and share government incentives with leased facilities and networks.
  • Encourage employees to reduce emissions at home by providing educational resources on the benefits of domestic heat pumps.

Further information:

Nonprofit Leaders
  • Advocate for zero-carbon construction and building codes that clearly designate heat pumps as the default for all new buildings.
  • Deploy heat pumps in owned and operated facilities.
  • Encourage building owners and managers to switch to heat pumps in leased facilities.
  • Educate businesses and communities on the benefits of installing heat pumps and any tax incentives in their region.
  • Advocate to policymakers for improved policies and incentives.
  • Educate community leaders on the need for adoption.

Further information:

Investors
  • Commit to only finance zero-carbon construction with clear requirements for heat pumps as the default for all new development investments.
  • Deploy capital to efforts that improve heat pump performance and reduce material, installation, and maintenance costs.
  • Explore investment opportunities that address supply chain concerns.
  • Consider investments that mitigate non-manufacturing barriers to scaling.
  • Finance heat pump installations via low-interest loans.

Further information:

Philanthropists and International Aid Agencies
  • Directly distribute heat pumps, prioritizing locations where heat pumps maximize emissions reductions, and improve housing affordability.
  • Advocate for zero-carbon construction and building codes that clearly designate heat pumps as the default for all new buildings.
  • Fund R&D efforts and competitions to improve technology, reduce costs, and address supply chain concerns.
  • Support consumer advocacy and education campaigns on heat pumps and how to maximize regulatory incentives.
  • Support training or incentive programs for distributors and installers.

Further information:

Thought Leaders
  • Advocate for zero-carbon construction and building codes that clearly designate heat pumps as the default for all new buildings.
  • Highlight the need to transition away from fossil-fuel-fired heating.
  • Educate the public on the benefits of heat pumps and how they work.
  • Provide case studies that present successes and lessons learned.
  • Increase consumer comfort by including heat pumps in communication content on topics such as home remodeling and construction, technology, health, self-sufficiency, and personal finance.
  • Provide up-to-date user information on available models.

Further information:

Technologists and Researchers
  • Identify safe, cost-effective, and suitable alternative refrigerants.
  • Design systems that require less refrigerant.
  • Work to increase the longevity of heat pumps.
  • Improve heat pumps’ efficiency and capacity at low temperatures as well as their ability to deliver higher temperature heat.
  • Research external social factors critical to adoption.
  • Identify appropriate methods for recycling and disposing of heat pumps and responsibly recovering their refrigerant chemicals at the end of the product life cycle. 

Further information:

Communities, Households, and Individuals
  • Install heat pumps when possible and encourage local heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) retailers and installers to sell services and equipment.
  • Increase consumer comfort by sharing your experience and tips for troubleshooting technologies.
  • Advocate for zero-carbon construction and building codes that clearly designate heat pumps as the default for all new buildings.
  • Build support networks for new users and connect to explore innovations.
  • Encourage your property management company, employers, and government officials to accelerate adoption. 

Further information:

“Take Action” Sources
Evidence Base

Consensus of effectiveness in reducing GHG emissions: High

Electric heat pumps are generally viewed as the primary strategy for reducing GHG emissions from buildings. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ([IPCC] 2023) noted that heat pumps drive electrification in buildings and help decrease emissions. The European Commission (2022) claimed that heat pumps are an essential way of decreasing reliance on gas in heating while increasing the use of renewable energy in the heating sector. The IEA (2022) reported that heat pumps powered by electricity generated with renewable energy “are the central technology in the global transition to secure and sustainable heating.” IRENA (2024) claimed heat pumps in buildings “will play a crucial role in reducing reliance on fossil fuels.” 

In one of the largest scientific reviews on the topic, Gaur et al. (2021) concluded that heat pumps “have the potential to play a substantial role in the transition to low carbon heating,” and noted that emissions impacts of heat pumps are dependent on the type of heat pump technology, their location, and the electricity grid mix. Knobloch et al. (2020) studied 59 world regions and found that electrification of the heating sector via heat pumps will reduce emissions in most world regions where they are adopted.

The results presented in this document summarize findings from 46 reports, reviews and meta-analyses and 13 original studies reflecting current evidence from 30 countries, primarily European countries, Canada, the United States, Japan, and China. We recognize this limited geographic and technology scope creates bias, and hope this work inspires research and data sharing on this topic in underrepresented regions and in the commercial sector.

Updated Date
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Deploy Building Automation Systems

Sector
Buildings & Electricity
Mode
Cut Emissions
Cluster
Enhance Efficiency
Image
Automate Building Systems
Coming Soon
On
Summary

We define Deploy Building Automation Systems (BASs) as reducing commercial (i.e., nonresidential or industrial) building energy use and associated GHG emissions by using sensors to monitor a building in operation and control systems such as heating, cooling, ventilation, plug loads, and lighting for the purpose of saving energy. This solution does not include automated building systems that control security, safety, and other functions, and applies to existing buildings only. 

Health
Air quality
Description for Social and Search
Automating building systems for heating, cooling and lighting is an efficiency measure that reduces the energy-related emissions from commercial buildings.
Overview

BASs (also referred to as building energy management systems, building management systems, or building automation control systems) use automation to optimize system performance and reduce the energy needed to operate commercial buildings. This cuts emissions generated by the energy sources, including emissions from fuels burned to provide heating as well as emissions from generating the electricity used to power air conditioners, plug loads, and lighting. Together, these contribute to an estimated 3.7Gt of energy-related emissions associated with operating nonresidential buildings per year (International Energy Agency [IEA], 2023b). This solution reduces critical climate pollutants, primarily CO₂, but also methane and nitrous oxides. 

The energy savings from BASs are the outcome of processes such as scheduled and occupancy-based control of heating, cooling, ventilation and lighting; optimization of set-point temperatures; predictive maintenance; and fault detection and diagnostics (Akbulut et al., 2025). Some BAS include smart controls that learn from occupant behaviors to optimize performance and energy savings (O’Grady et al., 2021). 

BASs can reduce commercial energy use by an estimated 5–40% (IEA, 2025). Local climate conditions, the type of BAS and how it is operated, building type and condition, and user behaviors can affect this outcome (Fernandez et al., 2017; Morkunaite et al., 2022). For example, modeling of U.S. buildings showed an average potential 23.3% energy savings with a BAS in supermarkets but a 48.8% energy savings for secondary schools and 29% savings for commercial buildings overall (Fernandez et al., 2017). These outcomes also included measures to correct for operational faults such as miscalibrated sensors and problems with seals. 

BASs typically consist of three architectural layers (Domingues et al., 2016) (Figure 1). At the field layer, sensors monitor conditions such as temperature, air flow, humidity, and lighting levels within a space and actuators adjust equipment in response to control signals. The control layer receives and processes incoming sensor data and sends control signals to the actuators according to programmed control logic and set parameters. The management layer is where data are logged, monitored, and analyzed to track and optimize performance, identify trends, and adjust automation settings. 

Figure 1. A typical BAS has three layers: a field layer, which senses the environment and adjusts equimpment as needed; a control layer, which handles communication between the sensors and actuators; and a management layer, which logs and analyzes data to optimize performance. Modified from dos Santos et al. (2021) and Fluke (n.d.).

Diagram demonstrating Automated Building Systems functions of management, controllers, and devices in the field.

Sources: dos Santos, D. R., Dagrada, M., & Costante, E. (2021). Leveraging operational technology and the Internet of things to attack smart buildings. Journal of Computer Virology and Hacking Techniques, 17(1), 1–20; Fluke. (n.d.). Troubleshooting communications problems in building control systems. Fluke Corporation. 

References

ABI Research. (2025). Number of commercial buildings with automation systems by region [Report]. Link to source: https://www.abiresearch.com/news-resources/chart-data/forecast-number-of-automated-commercial-buildings-by-region 

Abuimara, T., Hobson, B. W., Gunay, B., O’Brien, W., & Kane, M. (2021). Current state and future challenges in building management: Practitioner interviews and a literature review. Journal of Building Engineering, 41, Article 102803. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2021.102803 

Akbulut, L., Taşdelen, K., Atılgan, A., Malinowski, M., Coşgun, A., Şenol, R., Akbulut, A., & Petryk, A. (2025). A systematic review of building energy management systems (BEMSs): Sensors, IoT, and AI integration. Energies, 18(24), Article 6522. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.3390/en18246522 

Ayorinde, E., & Kekana, L. I. (2025). Exploring the barriers facing the adoption of building automation systems for energy efficiency in a developing economy. Journal of Construction Project Management and Innovation, 15(2), 40–47. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.36615/jcpmi.v15i2.4371 

Backman, M. (2021). The commercial building automation market [Report]. Berg Insight. Link to source: https://media.berginsight.com/2021/02/07173719/bi-buildingautomation2-ps.pdf 

Domingues, P., Carreira, P., Vieira, R., & Kastner, W. (2016). Building automation systems: Concepts and technology review. Computer Standards & Interfaces, 45, 1–12. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.csi.2015.11.005 

dos Santos, D. R., Dagrada, M., & Costante, E. (2021). Leveraging operational technology and the Internet of things to attack smart buildings. Journal of Computer Virology and Hacking Techniques, 17(1), 1–20. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11416-020-00358-8 

Ebuy, H. T., Bril El Haouzi, H., Benelmir, R., & Pannequin, R. (2023). Occupant behavior impact on building sustainability performance: A literature review. Sustainability, 15(3), Article 2440. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.3390/su15032440 

European Parliament, & Council of the European Union. (2024). Directive (EU) 2024/1275 of the European parliament and of the council of 24 April 2024 on the energy performance of buildings (Document No. 32024L1275). Official Journal of the European Union. Link to source: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=OJ:L_202401275 

Fernandez, N., Xie, Y., Katipamula, S., Zhao, M., Wang, W., & Corbin, C. (2017). Impacts of commercial building controls on energy savings and peak load reduction (Report No. PNNL-25985). Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Link to source: https://www.pnnl.gov/main/publications/external/technical_reports/PNNL-25985.pdf 

Fluke. (n.d.). Troubleshooting communications problems in building control systems. Fluke Corporation. Retrieved April 7, 2026, from Link to source: http://www.wecl.com.hk/Fluke/solutions/building-control-systems.pdf 

Garzia, F., Verbeke, S., Pozza, C., & Audenaert, A. (2023). Meeting user needs through building automation and control systems: A review of impacts and benefits in office environments. Buildings, 13(10), Article 2530. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings13102530 

Global Growth Insights. (2026). Building automation and control system market size, share, growth and industry analysis, by types (access control, electronic security and safety, energy management systems, fire and life safety, heating ventilation & air conditioning, other products), by applications (commercial, government, hospitality, industrial, institutional, IT/ITEs, residential, retail), regional insights and forecast to 2035 [Report GGI109442]. Retrieved February 12, 2026, from Link to source: https://www.globalgrowthinsights.com/market-reports/building-automation-and-control-system-market-109442 

Henneman, L., Choirat, C., Dedoussi, I., Dominici, F., Roberts, J., & Zigler, C. (2023). Mortality risk from United States coal electricity generation. Science, 382(6673), 941–946. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1126/science.adf4915 

International Energy Agency. (2023a). Energy consumption in buildings by fuel in the net zero scenario, 2010-2030. Link to source: https://www.iea.org/data-and-statistics/charts/energy-consumption-in-buildings-by-fuel-in-the-net-zero-scenario-2010-2030-2 

International Energy Agency. (2023b). Global CO2 emissions from the operation of buildings in the net zero scenario, 2010-2030. Link to source: https://www.iea.org/data-and-statistics/charts/global-co2-emissions-from-the-operation-of-buildings-in-the-net-zero-scenario-2010-2030 

International Energy Agency. (2023c). Global floor area and buildings energy intensity in the net zero scenario, 2010-2030. Link to source: https://www.iea.org/data-and-statistics/charts/global-floor-area-and-buildings-energy-intensity-in-the-net-zero-scenario-2010-2030 

International Energy Agency. (2023d). Total floor area by use in the net zero scenario, 2010-2030. Link to source: https://www.iea.org/data-and-statistics/charts/total-floor-area-by-use-in-the-net-zero-scenario-2010-2030-2 

International Energy Agency. (2025). Energy efficiency 2025. Link to source: https://iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/23a80bb2-6985-4507-ab99-c1d700f6548b/EnergyEfficiency2025.pdf 

Li, G., Ren, L., Fu, Y., Yang, Z., Adetola, V., Wen, J., Zhu, Q., Wu, T., Candan, K. S., & O’Neill, Z. (2023). A critical review of cyber-physical security for building automation systems. Annual Reviews in Control, 55, 237–254. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.arcontrol.2023.02.004 

Morkunaite, L., Pupeikis, D., Jurelionis, A., Fokaides, P. A., & Papadopoulos, A. (2022). An analytical model for the impact of building control and automation upgrade on space heating energy efficiency. Buildings, 12(8), Article 1074. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings12081074 

Mulayim, O. B., Prakash, A. K., Paul, L., & Pritoni, M. (2025). Extraction and analysis of time series data from building automation systems using large language models. Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.20357/B73W4C 

O’Grady, T., Chong, H.-Y., & Morrison, G. M. (2021). A systematic review and meta-analysis of building automation systems. Building and Environment, 195, Article 107770. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2021.107770 

Oliveira, A. P., Carraquico, T., & Martinez-Perez, C. (2026). Beyond efficiency: A systematic review of energy consumption and carbon footprint across the AI lifecycle. Sustainability, 18(3), Article 1359. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.3390/su18031359 

Poyyamozhi, M., Murugesan, B., Rajamanickam, N., Shorfuzzaman, M., & Aboelmagd, Y. (2024). IoT—A promising solution to energy management in smart buildings: A systematic review, applications, barriers, and future scope. Buildings, 14(11), Article 3446. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14113446 

Rai, A. (2026). Building automation systems market analysis & forecast: 2026-2033. Coherent Market Insights. Retrieved February 12, 2026, from Link to source: https://www.coherentmarketinsights.com/market-insight/building-automation-systems-market-1350 

Taboada-Orozco, A., Yetongnon, K., & Nicolle, C. (2024). Smart buildings: A comprehensive systematic literature review on data-driven building management systems. Sensors, 24(13), Article 4405. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.3390/s24134405 

Trenbath, K., Meyer, R., Woldekidan, K., Maisha, K., & Harris, M. (2022). Commercial building sensors and control systems—Barriers, drivers, and costs [Technical report NREL/TP-6A50-82117]. National Renewable Energy Laboratory. Link to source: https://docs.nlr.gov/docs/fy22osti/82117.pdf 

U.S. Energy Information Administration. (2022a). Table B7. Building size, floorspace, 2018 [Data set]. Link to source: https://www.eia.gov/consumption/commercial/data/2018/bc/pdf/b7.pdf 

U.S. Energy Information Administration. (2022b). Table B12. Selected principal building activity: Part 1, floorspace, 2018 [Data set]. Link to source: https://www.eia.gov/consumption/commercial/data/2018/bc/pdf/b12.pdf 

U.S. Energy Information Administration. (2022c). Table B14. Selected principal building activity: Part 2, floorspace, 2018 [Data set]. Link to source: https://www.eia.gov/consumption/commercial/data/2018/bc/pdf/b14.pdf 

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (2025). Power sector programs—Progress report. Link to source: https://www.epa.gov/power-sector/progress-report 

van Roosmale, S., Audenaert, A., & Meysman, J. (2024). Understanding the opportunities and challenges of building automation and control systems to support facility management – An extensive literature review. Facilities, 42(7-8), 677–693. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1108/F-05-2023-0042 

Van Thillo, L., Verbeke, S., & Audenaert, A. (2022). The potential of building automation and control systems to lower the energy demand in residential buildings: A review of their performance and influencing parameters. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 158, Article 112099. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2022.112099 

Vandenbogaerde, L., Verbeke, S., & Audenaert, A. (2023). Optimizing building energy consumption in office buildings: A review of building automation and control systems and factors influencing energy savings. Journal of Building Engineering, 76, Article 107233. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2023.107233 

Zarco-Soto, F. J., Zarco-Soto, I. M., Ali, S. S. S., & Zarco-Periñán, P. J. (2025). Energy consumption in buildings: A compilation of current studies. Energy Reports, 13, 1293–1307. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egyr.2024.12.069 

Credits

Lead Fellow

  • Heather McDiarmid Ph.D

Contributors

  • Ruthie Burrows, Ph.D.

  • James Gerber, Ph.D.

  • Daniel Jasper

  • Alex Sweeney

Internal Reviewers

  • Henry Igugu, Ph.D.

  • Amanda D. Smith, Ph.D.

  • Christina Swanson, Ph. D.

Effectiveness

We estimate that BASs reduce GHG emissions by 0.011 t CO₂‑eq/yr (20- and 100-yr basis) for every m2 of building space (Table 1) by reducing fuels and electricity used for heating, cooling and lighting. 

BASs reduce more emissions when installed in buildings that are energy intensive (e.g., hotels) or that use highly polluting fuels (e.g., heating oil) than in buildings that have low energy intensity (e.g., educational facilities) or that use renewable energy (Zarco-Soto et al., 2025).

We assumed 21% energy savings with BASs, which represents the median from 11 estimates, models, or measurements of whole-building energy savings from installed BASs. The effectiveness value is an average that was weighted for annual energy use per m2 by commercial building type and by the mix of fuels used for energy in buildings (IEA, 2023a). The analysis assumes that the relative proportion of commercial building space by type in the U.S. (U.S. Energy Information Administration [U.S. EIA], 2022b, 2022c) is representative of the proportions globally. 

Table 1. Effectiveness at reducing emissions.

Unit: t CO₂‑eq (100-year basis)/m2 using BAS/yr

Mean 0.011
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Cost

We determined that a BAS will cost US$0 per t CO₂‑eq reduced (Table 2) because the up-front cost is recovered through operational savings over the system’s lifetime. Buildings where energy savings are higher than average will show net savings because of higher operational savings, while more energy-efficient buildings may see a net cost.

The median up-front cost of the system is US$46/m2 building space but once installed, the system will save a building owner US$3.00/m2/yr in energy costs. Assuming a 15-year lifespan for the system, this results in a net cost of US$0/m2/yr. In other words, the system pays for itself in 15 years through operational savings.

The up-front cost includes the installed cost of the sensors, controllers, and networking infrastructure (Domingues et al., 2016). Operational costs consider only the cost savings from the 21% energy savings weighted by annual energy use per m2 by commercial building type, and relative building energy consumption by energy source (IEA, 2023a). The ongoing maintenance, software, and personnel costs are not included in this analysis. Additional savings may also be achieved through automated fault detection and diagnostics or other BAS features such as security. 

Table 2. Cost per unit climate impact.

Unit: US$ (2023) per t CO₂‑eq (100-year basis)

Median 0
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Methods and Supporting Data

Methods and Supporting Data

Learning Curve

Insufficient data exists to assess the learning rate for BASs. However, market analyses suggest prices will decline due to competition and economies of scale, especially for midsize commercial buildings (Rai, 2026).

Speed of Action

Speed of action refers to how quickly a climate solution physically affects the atmosphere after it is deployed. This is different from speed of deployment, which is the pace at which solutions are adopted.

At Project Drawdown, we define the speed of action for each climate solution as emergency brake, gradual, or delayed.

Deploy Building Automation Systems is a GRADUAL climate solution. It has a steady, linear impact on the atmosphere. 

Caveats

Energy savings outcomes can differ based on whether they are derived from real world measurements or models, with modeled values often overestimating energy savings (Van Thillo et al., 2022; Vandenbogaerde et al., 2023). Model assumptions and simplifications, occupant behavior, real world conditions, and other factors contribute to the discrepancy (Van Thillo et al., 2022). Due to a lack of observed data, this analysis relies heavily on modeled energy savings. 

There can be very significant differences between building types in terms of total energy usage and energy savings potential. A U.S. study of BAS savings in commercial buildings modeled 4% energy savings in an efficient retail strip mall and 59% for an inefficient secondary school, with an aggregated average of 29% for all building types (Fernandez et al., 2017). Some building types, such as health-care facilities and technology centres, are underrepresented in studies of energy consumption in buildings (Zarco-Soto et al., 2025). 

Current Adoption

We estimated that 10 billion m2 of commercial building space use BASs (Table 3). We estimated this represents 18% of total commercial floor area based on collected data (ABI research, 2025; Global Growth Insights, 2026; IEA, 2023c; U.S. EIA, 2022a). This value is comparable to ABI research (2025) estimates that 15% of global commercial building stock use BASs, with highest adoption in North America and Western Europe.

These estimates are based on market reports from 2025 plus U.S. statistics from 2018 (ABI research, 2025; Global Growth Insights, 2026; U.S. EIA, 2022a). Market reports may overestimate BAS adoption as we defined it because they include BASs that focus on security and other applications. We expect most BASs to be ones that control the energy use of equipment. Adoption rates in the market reports are also expressed as a percentage of commercial buildings with BASs. We use this as a proxy for percentage of floor area, although this may be an underestimate because large buildings are more likely than small ones to use BASs (Trenbath et al., 2022).

Common barriers to BAS adoption are largely economic and technical ones such as high up-front costs, challenges with estimating savings, system complexity, and lack of interoperability (Trenbath et al., 2022). In low-income countries, there can be additional barriers such as power supply issues, limited access to technology, lack of awareness, and lack of trained workers (Ayorinde & Kekana, 2025). 

Table 3. Current adoption level (2025).

Unit: m2 using BASs

Mean 10,000,000,000
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Adoption Trend

We estimate that commercial building spaces add BASs at a rate of 730 million m2/yr (Table 4). This is based on a single market research report that estimated the percent of the global commercial buildings with BASs in 2024 and projected values for 2030 (ABI research, 2025). 

This value may not be an accurate indicator of the actual adoption trend for three reasons. First, it is based on a market report used to project future adoption. Second, we assume the percentage of the number of commercial buildings with BASs is a proxy for the percentage of building space with BASs, although larger commercial buildings may be more likely to adopt BASs. Finally, the market analysis did not differentiate between BASs that focus on energy savings and those that serve other purposes such as security. 

Market research groups are generally optimistic that BAS sales will see strong growth in the foreseeable future, especially in North America and Europe (Backman, 2021; Global Growth Insights, 2026).

Table 4. Adoption trend (2024–2030).

Unit: m2 BASs installed per year

Estimate 730,000,000
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Adoption Ceiling

If all existing commercial building space used BASs, they would serve 55 billion m2 of floor space globally (Table 5). This is based on the IEA’s estimate of total floor area for nonresidential buildings in 2022 (IEA, 2023d). 

Table 5. Adoption ceiling: upper limit for adoption level. 

Unit: m2 using BASs 

Estimate 55,000,000,000
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Achievable Adoption

We estimate that 17 to 34 billion m2 of existing commercial building space could be served by BASs (see Table 6). 

For the low achievable value, we applied Global Growth Insights’ (2026) estimate that 66% of U.S. commercial building stock use BASs to all high-income countries and applied ABI Research’s (2025) estimate that 12% of Asia Pacific buildings use BASs to all low- and middle-income countries. We used the percent of buildings with BASs as a proxy for the percent of commercial building area with BASs. The estimated low achievable adoption for BASs is consistent with our adoption trend applied over 10 years. 

For the high achievable value, we assumed all building space in high-income countries use BASs and applied the reported U.S. 2018 adoption rate of BASs for heating, cooling and ventilation to low- and middle-income countries (U.S. EIA, 2022a). The European Union’s Energy Performance of Buildings Directive requires all commercial buildings above a threshold output for heating and cooling to install BASs by the end of 2029 (European Parliament & Council of the European Union, 2024).

The high achievable adoption for BASs is consistent with an accelerated adoption trend, similar to that projected by market research (Backman, 2021; Global Growth Insights, 2026).

Table 6. Range of achievable adoption levels.

Unit: m2 using BASs

Current adoption 10,000,000,000
Achievable – low 17,000,000,000
Achievable – high 34,000,000,000
Adoption ceiling 55,000,000,000
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Current use of BASs reduces emissions by an estimated 0.11 Gt CO₂‑eq/yr (100- and 20-year basis, Table 7). If all existing commercial building space were served by BASs, it would reduce emissions by 0.58 Gt CO₂‑eq/yr (100- and 20-year basis). The estimated achievable range for existing buildings is 0.18–0.36 Gt CO₂‑eq/yr (100- and 20-year basis).

Table 7. Climate impact at different levels of adoption. 

Unit: Gt CO₂‑eq (100-year basis)/yr

Current adoption 0.11
Achievable – low 0.18
Achievable – high 0.36
Adoption ceiling 0.58
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Additional Benefits

Health

Reducing energy use may lower air pollution and limit exposure to pollutants such as lead and fine particulate matter generated by fossil fuels, thereby improving the health of nearby communities (Henneman et al., 2023; U.S. Environmental Protection Agency [U.S. EPA], 2026). There is limited evidence that building automation systems can improve visual and thermal comfort, leading to a better employee experience and increased productivity (Garzia et al., 2023; Trenbath et al., 2022). 

Air Quality

Reducing energy use can reduce climate and air pollutants associated with burning fossil fuels, such as CO₂, nitrogen oxides, methane, lead, and fine particulate matter (U.S. EPA, 2026).

Risks

Installing a BAS is no guarantee that the system will be used optimally. The complexity of BASs means that facility managers may not have the skills to realize the potential of the system (Mulayim et al., 2025). Occupant behavior is also a well-documented reason for why BASs fail to achieve energy savings. Occupant overrides of thermostats, opening of windows and blinds, etc., can significantly increase energy use (Ebuy et al., 2023). 

Interoperability is a major challenge for BASs. New subsystems and controls are not always able to interact with existing BASs due to lack of universal standards. This can leave building owners locked into a single vendor for projects and services and can increase system complexity (Taboada-Orozco et al., 2024; Van Roosmale et al., 2024). 

Existing buildings risk seeing their BASs becoming obsolete as the technology advances and technical support for legacy equipment disappears (Van Roosmale et al., 2024). In addition, the reliance of BASs on data collection and communication leaves systems vulnerable to reliability and security issues (Van Roosmale et al., 2024).

Artificial Intelligence (AI) and big data analytic tools are increasingly being combined with BAS to improve performance. However, AI and associated data centers are energy intensive and, because emissions associated with AI computing are higher than emissions associated with rule-based automation tools, emissions savings at the building may not overcome the significant emissions from AI data centers (Oliveira et al., 2026). 

Interactions with Other Solutions

Reinforcing

BASs can be used to increase or decrease electricity demand during critical times to facilitate integration of renewable energy and minimize grid peak events (Fernandez et al., 2017).

Competing

There are diminishing returns when solutions that reduce building heating and cooling energy use are combined. Thus the climate impact of these solutions will be reduced when combined with BASs. 

Dashboard

Solution Basics

square meter (m2) of commercial building space in which operational systems are controlled by a building automation system for the purpose of saving energy

t CO₂-eq (100-yr)/unit/yr
0.011
units
Current 1.0×10¹⁰ 01.7×10¹⁰3.4×10¹⁰
Achievable (Low to High)

Climate Impact

Gt CO₂-eq (100-yr)/yr
Current 0.11 0.180.36
US$ per t CO₂-eq
0
Gradual

CO₂ , CH₄, N₂O

Trade-offs

BASs add complexity and new costs to building management even while overall saving operational costs and emissions. Operating BASs effectively to maximize savings requires competencies in both the technical aspects of building operation and also data management and even programming, skill sets that often require ongoing training (Abuimara et al., 2021). Many BASs are internet connected which increases vulnerability to cyberattacks (Li et al., 2023). Depending on the priorities of the owners and operators and the characteristics of the building, investments in alternative energy efficiency measures such as building envelope upgrades and improved windows could provide a better return on investment.

Action Word
Deploy
Solution Title
Building Automation Systems
Classification
Highly Recommended

Lawmakers and Policymakers
  • Set clear and measurable targets for building efficiency, emissions reduction, and the deployment of BASs.
  • Ensure public procurement standards require BASs for new commercial construction; require retrofits for existing public buildings.
  • Focus broader policies on energy efficiency through the use of intelligent control.
  • Create building codes that incentivize, facilitate, and/or phase in requirements for installing BASs in commercial buildings, in consultation with stakeholders and key actors; ensure building codes are consistent, offer clear guidelines, and are enforced; offer additional incentives for buildings that exceed requirements.
  • Create data security and privacy protection regulations for software and hardware; legally require periodic review to keep pace with technological advances and update policies as necessary; ensure legal liabilities are placed on equipment manufacturers and data managers, not building managers.
  • Work with international scientific bodies to establish standards for protocols, universal compatibility, data security, and privacy protection; align domestic with international standards.
  • Create regulations to discourage planned obsolescence and lock-in contracts for BAS maintenance, incentivize increased longevity for BAS hardware, and ensure data sharing between BAS operators and building owners.
  • Consider offering subsidies, tax breaks, or other financial incentives for the deployment of BASs; ensure financial incentives cover both new installations and retrofits.
  • Create regulatory frameworks that encourage the use of recycled materials for necessary hardware; require or encourage future models to be recyclable and/or modular to facilitate upgrades and reduce e-waste.
  • Simultaneously invest in energy and telecommunication infrastructure to facilitate connectivity; create backup power supplies and surge protection measures for electricity networks.
  • Create workforce training programs; create certification programs for retailers and installers; require periodic retraining to keep pace with technological developments.
  • Offer one-stop educational resources for BASs; offer demonstrations for installation and programming, and clear instructions on how to integrate the necessary components through online videos and in-person demos; offer building managers simplified recommendations for BAS hardware and software with comparisons to alternatives; clearly state benefits of BASs, highlighting the cost savings, social benefits, and environmental impacts.
  • Create or join green building certification schemes, green building councils, and/or public-private partnerships that offer information, training, and general support for BASs.

Further information:

Practitioners
  • Adhere to – and endeavor to exceed – minimum building code requirements for integrating BASs into commercial building design, where available.
  • Properly train facility managers and offer free, easy-to-read instructional material; provide ongoing support, maintenance, and retraining when necessary; ensure training offers ample instruction on maintaining security and data privacy.
  • Help make systems interoperable and, when possible, universally compatible with other BASs.
  • Offer pay-as-you-go (PAYG) services to reduce initial financial burdens of BASs.
  • Offer recommendations or bundled services to increase capacity of a building's network infrastructure, ensuring it can accommodate a large number of devices.
  • Ensure data management protocols offer top-of-the-line security measures; identify appropriate data storage solutions, allowing for considerable data expansion; share building data with building owners and operators. 
  • Ensure technicians and employees are well versed in the complexity of integrating the different components of BASs and can offer accurate quotes for services.
  • Create workforce training programs; create certification programs for retailers and installers; require periodic retraining to keep pace with technological developments.
  • Work with other vendors and industry leaders to standardize terminology to improve customer service and increase adoption. Use open data formats and open data protocols to control costs and avoid vendor lock-in.
  • Offer digital displays that provide real-time feedback for automated operations and take into account manual overrides, showing managers the impacts of overrides such as adjusting thermostats.
  • Offer trade-in programs for old equipment and work with recycling facilities to recover as much material as possible; work with manufacturers to incorporate as much recycled material as possible into new products.
  • Offer one-stop educational resources for BASs; offer demonstrations for installation and programming, and clear instructions on how to integrate the necessary components through online videos and in-person demos; offer building managers simplified recommendations for BAS hardware and software with comparisons to alternatives; clearly state benefits of BASs highlighting the cost savings, social benefits, and environmental impacts.
  • Create or join green building certification schemes, green building councils, and/or public-private partnerships that offer information, training, and general support for BASs.

Further information:

Business Leaders
  • Ensure corporate building and indoor spaces use BASs; take advantage of public incentives such as subsidies or tax credits for installation.
  • Refrain from overriding the system by addressing the needs of the building’s occupants and ensure facility managers are well trained to optimize energy and cost savings while maintaining comfort.
  • Help socialize the importance of BASs by incorporating these systems and related green building practices into corporate net zero strategies; highlight the use of BASs in public communications.
  • Invest in research and development to determine optimal user interfaces, protocols, compatibility, and/or algorithms for BASs.
  • Offer employees information on BASs and how to work with them to optimize cost and energy savings while preserving comfort.
  • Offer company grants to suppliers to improve energy use in their operations with BASs and related equipment.
  • Provide professional development opportunities to building management employees for training in BASs and other related fields.
  • Create or join green building certification schemes, green building councils, and/or public-private partnerships that offer information, training, and general support for BASs.

Further information:

Nonprofit Leaders
  • Ensure operations use BASs; take advantage of public incentives such as subsidies or tax credits for installation.
  • Refrain from overriding the system by addressing the needs of the building’s occupants and ensure facility managers are well trained to optimize energy and cost savings while maintaining comfort.
  • Help policymakers set clear and measurable targets for building efficiency, emissions reduction, and the deployment of BASs.
  • Help shift the focus of policymakers to broader policies on energy efficiency through the use of intelligent control.
  • Help create building codes that incentivize, facilitate, and/or phase in requirements for installing BASs in commercial buildings; help ensure building codes are enforced, are consistent, and offer clear guidelines; recommend additional incentives for buildings that exceed requirements.
  • Help design data security and privacy protection regulations for software and hardware; advocate for legal requirements for periodic reviews to keep pace with technological advances and require updates to policies as necessary; help ensure legal liabilities are placed on equipment manufacturers and data managers, not building managers.
  • Work with international scientific bodies to establish standards for protocols, universal compatibility, data security, and privacy protection; help align domestic with international standards.
  • Advocate for regulatory frameworks that discourage business practices that reduce adoption such as planned obsolescence; help create regulatory standards that incentivize increasing the longevity of the hardware required for BASs.
  • Advocate for subsidies, tax breaks, or other financial incentives for the deployment of BASs; help target subsidies to low- and middle-income communities and recommend policymakers simultaneously offer incentives for broadband and digital connectivity; help ensure financial incentives cover both new installations and retrofits.
  • Help create regulatory frameworks that encourage the use of recycled materials for necessary hardware; advocate for requirements or incentives for future models to be recyclable and/or modular to facilitate upgrades and reduce e-waste.
  • Simultaneously advocate for investments in energy and telecommunication infrastructure to facilitate connectivity; help policymakers plan and create backup power supplies and surge protection measures for electricity networks.
  • Create workforce training programs; create certification programs for retailers and installers; offer periodic retraining to keep pace with technological developments.
  • Offer one-stop educational resources for BASs; offer demonstrations for installation and programming, and clear instructions on how to integrate the necessary components through online videos and in-person demos; offer building managers simplified recommendations for BAS hardware and software with comparisons to alternatives; clearly state benefits of BASs highlighting the cost savings, social benefits, and environmental impacts.
  • Create or join green building certification schemes, green building councils, and/or public-private partnerships that offer information, training, and general support for BASs.

Further information:

Investors
  • Finance only new commercial construction and retrofits that use BASs as well as other green building practices.
  • Invest in research and development to improve BAS hardware and software compatibility and user experience for building managers.
  • Invest in start-ups seeking to deploy BASs; offer preferential loan agreements for developers using BASs, energy efficient building practices, and other related climate solutions.
  • Invest in businesses seeking to improve the longevity of BAS hardware and equipment; invest in companies improving the recyclability of hardware and/or incorporating recycled materials into new products; invest in projects seeking to make BAS hardware more resilient to climatic conditions such as high heat and humidity.
  • Invest in companies seeking to improve data security and privacy protection measures for BAS hardware and/or software; invest in companies seeking to simplify software to create a better user experience for building managers.
  • Issue or buy green bonds to deploy capital to projects that use BASs and integrate other green building practices.
  • Create or join green building certification schemes, green building councils, and/or public-private partnerships that offer information, training, and general support for programmable thermostats.

Further information:

Philanthropists and International Aid Agencies
  • Ensure operations use BASs; take advantage of public incentives such as subsidies or tax credits for installation.
  • Refrain from overriding the system by addressing the needs of the building’s occupants and ensure facility managers are well trained to optimize energy and cost savings while maintaining comfort.
  • Finance only new commercial construction and retrofits that use BASs as well as other green building practices.
  • Offer grants or preferential loan agreements for commercial developers using BASs, energy efficient building practices, and other related climate solutions.
  • Offer grants or invest in businesses seeking to improve the longevity of BAS hardware and equipment; offer financing for companies improving the recyclability of hardware and/or incorporating recycled materials into new products; invest in projects seeking to make BAS hardware more resilient to climatic conditions such as high heat and humidity.
  • Offer financing to companies seeking to improve data security and privacy protection measures for BAS hardware and/or software; provide grants or invest in companies seeking to simplify software to create a better user experience for building managers. Support the development of open data standards and control protocols.
  • Issue or buy green bonds to deploy capital to projects that use BASs and integrate other green building practices.
  • Help policymakers set clear and measurable targets for building efficiency, emissions reduction, and the deployment of BASs in commercial buildings.
  • Help shift the focus of policymakers to broader policies on energy efficiency through the use of intelligent control.
  • Help create building codes that incentivize, facilitate, and/or phase in requirements for installing BASs in commercial buildings; help ensure building codes are enforced, are consistent, and offer clear guidelines; recommend additional incentives for buildings that exceed requirements.
  • Help design data security and privacy protection regulations for software and hardware; advocate for legal requirements for periodic reviews to keep pace with technological advances and require updates to policies as necessary; help ensure legal liabilities are placed on equipment manufacturers and data managers, not building managers.
  • Work with international scientific bodies to establish standards for protocols, universal compatibility, data security, and privacy protection; help align domestic with international standards.
  • Advocate for regulatory frameworks that discourage business practices that reduce adoption, such as planned obsolescence; help create regulatory standards that incentivize increasing the longevity of the hardware required for BASs.
  • Advocate for subsidies, tax breaks or other financial incentives for the deployment of BASs in commercial buildings; help target subsidies to low- and middle-income communities and recommend policymakers simultaneously offer incentives for broadband and digital connectivity; help ensure financial incentives cover both new installations and retrofits.
  • Help create regulatory frameworks that encourage the use of recycled materials for necessary hardware; advocate for requirements or incentives for future models to be recyclable and/or modular to facilitate upgrades and reduce e-waste.
  • Simultaneously advocate for investments in energy and telecommunication infrastructure to facilitate connectivity; help policymakers plan and create backup power supplies and surge protection measures for electricity networks.
  • Create workforce training programs; create certification programs for retailers and installers; offer periodic retraining to keep pace with technological developments.
  • Offer one-stop educational resources for BASs; offer demonstrations for installation and programming, and clear instructions on how to integrate the necessary components through online videos and in-person demos; offer building managers simplified recommendations for BAS hardware and software with comparisons to alternatives; clearly state benefits of BASs highlighting the cost savings, social benefits, and environmental impacts.
  • Create or join green building certification schemes, green building councils, and/or public-private partnerships that offer information, training, and general support for BASs.

Further information:

Thought Leaders
  • Help policymakers set clear and measurable targets for building efficiency, emissions reduction, and BAS deployment in commercial buildings.
  • Help shift the focus of policymakers to broader energy efficiency policies through the use of intelligent control.
  • Help create building codes that incentivize, facilitate, and/or phase in requirements for installing BASs in commercial buildings; help ensure building codes are enforced, are consistent, and offer clear guidelines; recommend additional incentives for buildings that exceed requirements.
  • Help design data security and privacy protection regulations for software and hardware; advocate for legal requirements for periodic reviews to keep pace with technological advances and require updates to policies as necessary; help ensure legal liabilities are placed on equipment manufacturers and data managers, not building managers.
  • Work with international scientific bodies to establish standards for protocols, universal compatibility, data security, and privacy protection; help align domestic and international standards.
  • Advocate for regulatory frameworks that discourage business practices that reduce adoption such as planned obsolescence; help create regulatory standards that incentivize increasing the longevity of the hardware required for BASs.
  • Advocate for subsidies, tax breaks or other financial incentives for the deployment of BASs in commercial buildings; help target subsidies to low- and middle-income communities and recommend policymakers simultaneously offer incentives for broadband and digital connectivity; help ensure financial incentives cover both new installations and retrofits.
  • Help create regulatory frameworks that encourage the use of recycled materials for necessary hardware; advocate for requirements or incentives for future models to be recyclable and/or modular to facilitate upgrades and reduce e-waste.
  • Simultaneously advocate for investments in energy and telecommunication infrastructure to facilitate connectivity; help policymakers plan and create backup power supplies and surge protection measures for electricity networks.
  • Create workforce training programs; create certification programs for retailers and installers; offer periodic retraining to keep pace with technological developments.
  • Offer one-stop educational resources for BASs; offer demonstrations for installation and programming, and clear instructions on how to integrate the necessary components through online videos and in-person demos; offer building managers simplified recommendations for BAS hardware and software with comparisons to alternatives; clearly state benefits of BASs highlighting the cost savings, social benefits, and environmental impacts.
  • Create or join green building certification schemes, green building councils, and/or public-private partnerships that offer information, training, and general support for BASs.

Further information:

Technologists and Researchers
  • Help create building automation protocols; make systems interoperable and, when possible, universally compatible with other BASs; help ensure product lines don’t lock facility managers into single vendor products and services; help resolve discrepancies in data formats and architectures to facilitate data exchange, integration, and efficiency.
  • Design BASs to facilitate upgrades in both software and hardware; create long-lasting products that are widely compatible with other necessary technology to decrease e-waste.
  • Help design BASs to be recyclable, use recycled materials, and require low amounts of raw materials.
  • Help create security measures for necessary software and hardware to protect privacy and data.
  • Create open-source platforms to allow for development and improve integration of BAS software.
  • Help design environmentally resilient hardware that can operate effectively in high temperatures and humidity. 
  • Help create more accurate models for building managers to determine energy and cost savings compared to initial costs for transitioning to BASs.
  • Help create simplified processes for software updates to allow building managers to carry out updates without needing a professional technician to assist.
  • Incorporate charging for electric vehicles into BASs to optimize energy and cost savings.

Further information:

Communities, Households, and Individuals
  • Inquire about the use of BASs in local public buildings and facilities and at your place of employment; encourage building owners and managers to adopt them.
  • Advocate for regulatory frameworks that discourage business practices that reduce adoption such as planned obsolescence; help create regulatory standards that incentivize increasing the longevity of the hardware required for BASs.
  • Advocate for subsidies, tax breaks, or other financial incentives to deploy BASs in commercial buildings; help ensure financial incentives cover both new installations and retrofits.
  • Simultaneously advocate for investments in energy and telecommunication infrastructure to facilitate connectivity; help policymakers plan and create backup power supplies and surge protection measures for electricity networks.

Further information:

“Take Action” Sources
Evidence Base

Consensus of effectiveness in reducing GHG emissions: High. 

The IEA (2025)’s report on energy efficiency highlighted the importance of digital optimization using automation to boost efficiency gains in commercial buildings worldwide. 

O’Grady et al. (2021)’s review showed consistent energy and peak power savings plus improved human comfort with BASs. Most studies relied on models and there was a noted lack of field case studies to understand discrepancies between measured and modeled values. 

Fernandez et al. (2017) modeled the energy savings potential with advanced building control systems focussing on heating, cooling, and ventilation across 14 commercial building types and 16 U.S. climate regions. They reported an aggregated average of 29% annual energy savings with building control systems. 

Taboada-Orozco et al. (2024)’s comprehensive review of BAS studies noted discrepancies between model predictions and real world measures due to occupant behaviors. They highlighted emerging applications of BASs such as health-care assistance, indoor navigation, and improving indoor air quality. 

Poyyamozhi et al. (2024) profiled how the use of Internet of Things (IoT) technology in BASs has the potential to enhance its energy savings through machine learning and adjustments based on real-time data.

The results presented in this document summarize findings from two reviews and meta-analyses, five original studies, six technical reports, four market reports, eight product information webpages, and four databases reflecting current evidence from the U.S. and for the world as a whole. We recognize this limited geographic scope creates bias, and hope this work inspires research and data sharing on this topic in underrepresented regions.

Updated Date
Coming Soon Label
Coming Soon

Improve Windows & Glass

Sector
Buildings & Electricity
Mode
Cut Emissions
Cluster
Enhance Efficiency
Image
Building with many windows
Coming Soon
Off
Summary

We define Improve Windows & Glass as reducing the heat transferred through typical windows used in residential and nonresidential buildings by improving the thermal insulation capacity of the glass. Windows typically constitute a small portion of a building envelope but account for a substantial portion of the heat transferred (gained or lost) between the indoor space and the external environment. Using double-glazed rather than single-glazed windows cuts GHG emissions by reducing the energy required to heat or cool a building’s interior and improves the thermal comfort of its occupants.

Income & work,Health
Air quality
Description for Social and Search
Improve Windows & Glass is a Highly Recommended climate solution. Upgrading single-glazed windows to double-glazing saves money, improves comfort, and cuts GHG emissions.
Overview

Windows represent 15–40% of a building's total envelope surface area (Shah et al., 2024). A significant amount of the heat transmitted through the building envelope occurs via windows (Basok et al., 2022; Cuce & Riffat, 2015), and the uncontrolled flow of heat due to poor thermal insulation capabilities of windows and glass can generally increase the energy required for heating or cooling indoor spaces by 30–50% (Arasteh et al., 2006; Balali et al., 2023; Gustavsen et al., 2011). Improving windows and glass helps reduce heat gain in warm climates and heat loss in cold climates, thereby reducing the energy required to thermally condition indoor spaces and cutting energy-related emissions while improving occupant comfort.

Operating buildings accounts for approximately 30% of global energy consumption (Delmastro & Chen, 2023). The International Energy Agency (IEA, 2023e) stated that heating indoor spaces accounted for more than 41 EJ of energy in 2022 (an equivalent of about 11,400 TWh). This energy is mainly fossil fuel–based (oil, natural gas, and coal), but also includes electricity, modern bioenergy, and solar thermal (IEA, 2023b; 2023e) (Figure 1). Space cooling is largely achieved through air conditioners. In 2022, cooling buildings used approximately 2,111 TWh (an equivalent of about 8 EJ) (IEA, 2023d; Ritchie, 2024). According to the IEA (2018), annual space-cooling energy consumption in 2016 (2,020 TWh) was more than three times its levels in 1990. Considering the mix of energy sources (IEA, 2023b), this solution potentially cuts CO₂, methane, and nitrous oxide emissions and reduces black carbon and F-gas refrigerant emissions from operating heating and cooling systems (Richardson, 2024; Pistochini et al., 2022).

Figure 1. Energy used in buildings globally largely originates from fossil fuel–based sources.

Source: International Energy Agency. (2023b, June 15). Energy consumption in buildings by fuel in the net zero scenario, 2010-2030. 

The properties of a window determine the rate of heat transfer (i.e., its thermal transmittance or U-value) and thus its efficacy at decreasing the flow of heat between the indoors and outdoors (Aguilar-Santana, 2020; Saint-Gobain, 2018). Window types such as double-glazed, double-glazed with low emissivity (low-e) coating, or triple-glazed (Figure 2) perform better than single-glazed windows due to their lower U-values (Aguilar-Santana et al., 2020; Li et al., 2023; Salazar et al., 2024). In more resourced countries or regions such as the United States, Canada, and the European Union, a minimum of double glazing is considered standard practice, accounting for a growing share of the number of windows installed or sold annually (Hermelink et al., 2017; Janssens, 2021). However, the minimum glazing U-value standards set by building energy regulations in most low- and middle-income countries, where the bulk of new construction occurs (IEA, 2023c), often do not mandate the use of better performing windows in buildings (Gaum, 2023). 

Improve Windows and Glass assesses the impact of retrofitting single-glazed windows in the current (2022) global building stock, focusing on scaling up the use of double glazing as the minimum. Retrofitting extends the lifespan of building components and helps these buildings remain in use. The U-value of 2.7 W/m2K we used for double glazing during our analysis also includes other double pane window types with similar U-values such as secondary glazing where a second window is added to the outside of the existing one.

Figure 2. Multiple-glazed windows reduce heat transmission better than single glazed windows and so create less demand for GHG-producing fuels. Modified from Aguilar-Santana et al. (2020) and Moghaddam et al. (2023).

A description of different glazing types.

Sources: Aguilar-Santana, J. L., Jarimi, H., Velasco-Carrasco, M., & Riffat, S. (2020). Review on window-glazing technologies and future prospects. International Journal of Low-Carbon Technologies, 15(1), 112–120; Moghaddam, S. A., Serra, C., Gameiro da Silva, M., & Simões, N. (2023). Comprehensive review and analysis of glazing systems towards nearly zero-energy buildings: Energy performance, thermal comfort, cost-effectiveness, and environmental impact perspectives. Energies, 16(17), Article 6283.

References

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Ahmed, A. E., Suwaed, M. S., Shakir, A. M., & Ghareeb, A. (2025). The impact of window orientation, glazing, and window-to-wall ratio on the heating and cooling energy of an office building: The case of hot and semi-arid climate. Journal of Engineering Research, 13(1), 409–422. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jer.2023.10.034

Arasteh, D., Selkowitz, S., Apte, J., & LaFrance, M. (2006). Zero energy windows. Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. Link to source: https://escholarship.org/uc/item/2zp5m6x8

Aroul, R., & Hansz, J. A. (2011). The role of dual-pane windows and improvement age in explaining residential property values. Journal of Sustainable Real Estate, 3(1), 142–161. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1080/10835547.2011.12091822

Aruta, G., Ascione, F., Iovane, T., & Mastellone, M. (2025). Double-skin façades for the refurbishment of historic buildings: Energy-economic feasibility for different types of glazing and ventilation rates. Journal of Building Engineering, 103, Article 112125. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2025.112125

Asahi India Glass Ltd. (2025, April 25). Top benefits of float glass in modern homes. Link to source: https://www.aisglass.com/blog/top-benefits-of-float-glass-in-modern-homes/

Balali, A., Yunusa-Kaltungo, A., & Edwards, R. (2023). A systematic review of passive energy consumption optimisation strategy selection for buildings through multiple criteria decision-making techniques. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 171, Article 113013. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2022.113013

Balasbaneh, A. T., Yeoh, D., Ramli, M. Z., & Valdi, M. H. T. (2022). Different alternative retrofit to improving the sustainability of building in tropical climate: Multi-criteria decision-making. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 29(27), 41669–41683. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-022-18647-8

Basok, B., Davydenko, B., Novikov, V., Pavlenko, A. M., Novitska, M., Sadko, K., & Goncharuk, S. (2022). Evaluation of heat transfer rates through transparent dividing structures. Energies, 15(13), Article 4910. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.3390/en15134910

Bulut, M., Wilkinson, S., Khan, A., Jin, X.-H., & Lee, C. L. (2021). Perceived benefits of retrofitted residential secondary glazing: An exploratory Australian study. International Journal of Building Pathology and Adaptation, 39(5), 720–733. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1108/IJBPA-09-2020-0083

Calautit, J. K., Sun, H., Li, J., Dik, A., & Mohammadi, M. (2025). Keeping it simple: Field testing and techno-economic assessment of a low-cost secondary quad glazing for enhanced energy efficiency in buildings [Corrected proof]. Energy and Built Environment. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbenv.2025.03.004

Cuce, E., & Riffat, S. B. (2015). Aerogel-assisted support pillars for thermal performance enhancement of vacuum glazing: A CFD research for a commercial product. Arabian Journal for Science and Engineering, 40(8), 2233–2238. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1007/s13369-015-1727-5

Delmastro, C., & Chen, O. (2023, July 11). Energy system: Buildings. International Energy Agency. Link to source: https://www.iea.org/energy-system/buildings

Department for Levelling Up, Housing and Communities. (2023, December 14). Accredited official statistics chapter 5: Energy efficiency. GOV.UK. Link to source: https://www.gov.uk/government/statistics/chapters-for-english-housing-survey-2022-to-2023-headline-report/chapter-5-energy-efficiency#contents

DIY Double Glaze. (n.d.). 6 problems with double glazed windows and how you can resolve them. Retrieved September 13, 2025, from Link to source: https://www.diydoubleglaze.com.au/6-problems-with-double-glazed-windows-and-how-you-can-resolve-them/

Duan, Q., Hinkle, L., Wang, J., Zhang, E., & Memari, A. (2021). Condensation effects on energy performance of building window systems. Energy Reports, 7, 7345–7357. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egyr.2021.10.096

Es-sakali, N., Kaitouni, S. I., Laasri, I. A., Mghazli, M. O., Cherkaoui, M., & Pfafferott, J. (2022). Assessment of the energy efficiency for a building energy model using different glazing windows in a semi-arid climate. Proceedings of the 13th International Renewable Energy Congress (IREC), 1–5. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1109/IREC56325.2022.10001934

Gasparotto, J., & Da Boit Martinello, K. (2021). Coal as an energy source and its impacts on human health. Energy Geoscience, 2(2), 113–120. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engeos.2020.07.003

Gaum, T. (2023). Building energy codes in the Global South: Comparing selected variables to develop a decision-making model to address climate-change guidelines [Spreadsheet]. SLIM3. Link to source: https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/1aP4zaeDvfwSI-3Abuj8Z_VUUEHJzjMZS/edit?gid=988383392#gid=988383392

Gaum, T., & Laubscher, J. (2022). Building energy codes: Reviewing the status of implementation strategies in the Global South. International Journal of Built Environment and Sustainability, 9(1), 39–53. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.11113/ijbes.v9.n1.871

Global Alliance for Buildings and Construction, International Energy Agency, & the United Nations Environment Programme. (2020). GlobalABC regional roadmap for buildings and construction in Africa 2020-2050: Towards a zero-emission, efficient and resilient buildings and construction sector [Report]. International Energy Agency. Link to source: https://globalabc.org/sites/default/files/inline-files/Africa_Buildings%20Roadmap_FINAL_1.pdf

Gomaa, M. M., Abdallah, A. S. H., Aloshan, M. A., & Ragab, A. (2025). A comparative analysis of advanced glazing technologies for energy-efficient buildings in Jeddah city, Saudi Arabia. Buildings, 15(9), Article 1477. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15091477

Gustavsen, A., Grynning, S., Arasteh, D., Jelle, B. P., & Goudey, H. (2011). Key elements of and material performance targets for highly insulating window frames. Energy and Buildings, 43(10), 2583–2594. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2011.05.010

Harkouss, F., Fardoun, F., & Biwole, P. H. (2018). Multi-objective optimization methodology for net zero energy buildings. Journal of Building Engineering, 16, 57–71. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2017.12.003

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Hermelink, A., von Manteuffel, B., & Grözinger, J. (2017). Minimum performance requirements for window replacement in the residential sector [Report]. ECOFYS. Link to source: https://glassforeurope.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/04/Minimum-performance-requirements-for-window-replacement-in-the-residential-sector.pdf

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International Energy Agency. (2022b). Renovation of near 20% of existing building stock to zero-carbon-ready by 2030 is ambitious but necessary. Link to source: https://www.iea.org/reports/renovation-of-near-20-of-existing-building-stock-to-zero-carbon-ready-by-2030-is-ambitious-but-necessary

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International Energy Agency. (2023c, June 15). Global floor area and buildings energy intensity in the net zero scenario, 2010-2030. Link to source: https://www.iea.org/data-and-statistics/charts/global-floor-area-and-buildings-energy-intensity-in-the-net-zero-scenario-2010-2030

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International Energy Agency. (2023f, July 11). Total floor area by use in the net zero scenario, 2010-2030. Link to source: https://www.iea.org/data-and-statistics/charts/total-floor-area-by-use-in-the-net-zero-scenario-2010-2030-2

International Energy Agency. (2024). World energy balances. Link to source: https://www.iea.org/data-and-statistics/data-product/world-energy-balances

Janssens, C. (2021, September 27). Minimum energy performance requirements for window replacement in the 28 EU member states. Glassonweb. Link to source: https://www.glassonweb.com/article/minimum-energy-performance-requirements-window-replacement-28-eu-member-states 

Karabay, H., & Arici, M. (2012). Multiple pane window applications in various climatic regions of Turkey. Energy and Buildings, 45, 67–71. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2011.10.020

Krarti, M., & Ihm, P. (2016). Evaluation of net-zero energy residential buildings in the MENA region. Sustainable Cities and Society, 22, 116–125. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2016.02.007

Li, N., Meng, Q., Zhao, L., Li, H., Wang, J., Zhang, N., Wang, P., & Lu, S. (2023). Thermal performance study of multiple thermal insulating glazings with polycarbonate films as interval layers. Journal of Building Engineering, 76, Article 107159. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2023.107159

Likins-White, M., Tenent, R. C., & Zhai, Z. (2023). Degradation of insulating glass units: Thermal performance, measurements and energy impacts. Buildings, 13(2), Article 551. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings13020551

Lozinsky, C. H., Casquero-Modrego, N., & Walker, I. S. (2025). The health and indoor environmental quality impacts of residential building envelope retrofits: A literature review. Building and Environment, 270, Article 112568. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2025.112568

Magraoui, C., Derradji, L., Hamid, A., Oukaci, S., Limam, A., & Merabtine, A. (2025). A smart roller shutters control for enhancing thermal comfort and sustainable energy efficiency in office buildings. Sustainability, 17(5), Article 2116. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.3390/su17052116

Menzies, G. F., & Wherrett, J. R. (2005). Multiglazed windows: Potential for savings in energy, emissions and cost. Building Services Engineering Research & Technology, 26(3), 249–258. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1191/0143624405bt132tn

MLI Building Products. (2023, February 27). Are glass prices set to rise in 2023? Link to source: https://www.mlibuildingproducts.co.uk/glass-prices-rise-2023/

Moghaddam, S. A., Serra, C., Gameiro da Silva, M., & Simões, N. (2023). Comprehensive review and analysis of glazing systems towards nearly zero-energy buildings: Energy performance, thermal comfort, cost-effectiveness, and environmental impact perspectives. Energies, 16(17), Article 6283. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.3390/en16176283

Natural Resources Canada. (n.d.). Table 4.5a – Windows by region. Government of Canada. Retrieved July 23, 2025, from Link to source: https://oee.nrcan.gc.ca/corporate/statistics/neud/dpa/showTable.cfm?type=SH&sector=aaa&juris=ca&year=2019&rn=35&page=1

Owolabi, A. B., Suh, D., & Pignatta, G. (2023). Investigating the energy use in an Australian building: A case study of a west-facing apartment in Sydney. Ain Shams Engineering Journal, 14(8), Article 102040. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.asej.2022.102040

Paarhammer. (n.d.). New building regulations coming soon. Paarhammer windows and doors. Retrieved August 15, 2025, from Link to source: https://www.paarhammer.com.au/blog/new-building-regulations-coming-soon

Pistochini, T., Dichter, M., Chakraborty, S., Dichter, N., & Aboud, A. (2022). Greenhouse gas emission forecasts for electrification of space heating in residential homes in the US. Energy Policy, 163, Article 112813. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2022.112813

Procurement Resource. (n.d.). Float glass price trend and forecast. Retrieved September 19, 2025, from Link to source: https://www.procurementresource.com/resource-center/glass-price-trends

Ren, Z., Wang, X., & Chen, D. (2014). Heat stress within energy efficient dwellings in Australia. Architectural Science Review, 57(3), 227–236. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1080/00038628.2014.903568

Richardson, J. (2024, December 31). CO2 carbon savings of a heat pump and their environmental cost. The Renewable Energy Hub UK. Link to source: https://www.renewableenergyhub.co.uk/main/heat-pumps-information/co2-carbon-savings-of-a-heat-pump-and-their-environmental-cost#:~:text=Fluorinated%20hydrocarbons%20such%20as%20HFCs,warming%20potential

Ritchie, H. (2024). Air conditioning causes around 3% of greenhouse gas emissions. How will this change in the future? Our World in Data. Link to source: https://archive.ourworldindata.org/20251125-173858/air-conditioning-causes-around-greenhouse-gas-emissions-will-change-future.html 

Saadatian, S., Freire, F., & Simões, N. (2021). Embodied impacts of window systems: A comparative assessment of framing and glazing alternatives. Journal of Building Engineering, 35, Article 102042. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2020.102042

Saint-Gobain. (2018). Solar & thermal 1e thermal insulation. Link to source: https://www.saint-gobain-glass.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/Solar-Thermal-1E-Thermal-Insulation-19-09-2018.pdf

Salazar, S. L., Simá, E., Vargas-López, R., Yang, R., Li, D., & Hernández-López, I. (2024). Assessing different glazing types for energy savings and CO2 reduction in a tropical climate: A comparative study. Journal of Building Engineering, 82, Article 108188. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2023.108188

Shah, B., Bhandari, M., & Tang, M. (2024). Importance of window installation in residential building envelopes having continuous external insulation in order to realize energy efficiency. Energies, 17(17), Article 4273. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.3390/en17174273

U.S. Energy Information Administration. (2018, May). 2015 Residential Energy Consumption Survey (RECS) survey data: Housing characteristics tables - structural and geographic characteristics - by housing unit type (HC2.1). Retrieved August 15, 2025, from Link to source: https://www.eia.gov/consumption/residential/data/2015/hc/php/hc2.1.php

U.S. Energy Information Administration. (2023). Table HC2.1 Structural and geographic characteristics of U.S. homes by housing unit type, 2020. Link to source: https://www.eia.gov/consumption/residential/data/2020/hc/pdf/HC%202.1.pdf

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (2024). Climate change indicators in the United States. Link to source: https://www.epa.gov/system/files/documents/2024-07/climate_indicators_2024.pdf 

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Yuk, H., Choi, J. Y., Yang, S., & Kim, S. (2024). Balancing preservation and utilization: Window retrofit strategy for energy efficiency in historic modern building. Building and Environment, 259, Article 111648. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2024.111648

Credits

Lead Fellow

  • Henry Igugu, Ph.D.

Contributors

  • Ruthie Burrows, Ph.D.

  • James Gerber, Ph.D.

  • Daniel Jasper

  • Alex Sweeney

Internal Reviewers

  • Sarah Gleeson, Ph.D.

  • Heather McDiarmid, Ph.D.

  • Amanda D. Smith, Ph.D.

Effectiveness

Each 1 m2 of single-glazed window glass in buildings that is upgraded to double glazing has the potential to cut GHG emissions by approximately 0.07 t CO₂‑eq/yr (20-yr and 100-yr basis).

To determine the solution’s effectiveness (Table 1), we evaluated the emissions cut from reducing space heating and space cooling. Since studies often capture different U-value ratings for similar window glass, we weighted the energy saved (kWh/yr) from improving the glass using consistent U-values for the baseline and solution (see Figure 2). Thereafter, we weighted the energy impact by the total area of glass substituted (m2) to determine the savings intensity (kWh/m2/yr) and multiplied the estimate by emission intensities of heating and cooling fuels based on the IEA’s world energy balances data (IEA, 2024).

This solution cuts CO₂, methane, and nitrous oxide emissions by reducing the amount of fossil fuels used for heating and for producing electricity used for cooling. The analysis includes studies from countries representative of heating-dominated and cooling-dominated climates such as the United States (Calautit et al., 2025) and Malaysia (Balasbaneh et al., 2022), respectively. Notably, the solution is also effective in other climates (Magraoui et al., 2025).

Table 1. Effectiveness at reducing emissions.

Unit: t CO₂‑eq /m2/yr, 100-yr basis

25th percentile 0.043
Mean 0.095
Median (50th percentile) 0.065
75th percentile 0.13
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Cost

Our estimate of the cost per unit climate impact (Table 2) indicates that replacing single-glazed windows with double-glazed windows in buildings globally results in considerable savings of approximately US$123/t CO₂‑eq.

We found that the solution’s initial cost varies considerably, from about US$31/m2 in Malaysia (Balasbaneh et al., 2022) to US$257–684/m2 in France (Harkouss et al., 2018), highlighting regional price differences that could affect adoption. Ultimately, we chose an initial cost of approximately US$144/m2 for double glazing. Using the cost of single glazing we found in studies from different regions (Aruta et al., 2025; Krarti & Ihm, 2016), our analysis determined a baseline initial cost of approximately US$35/m2. While the solution cost is more than four times the baseline, less energy is used for space heating or cooling, reducing the annual operating cost from US$23/m2 to approximately US$12/m2. After amortizing the initial cost over 30 years, the solution resulted in a net savings of US$8/m2/yr, compared with the baseline.

During our analysis, we normalized the initial cost by the baseline and solution U-value (see Figure 2) to ensure consistency. We assumed the initial cost includes the glass component alone, but some of our sources were ambiguous about the scope of the investment and may have also included frames and installation costs. To determine the cost per adoption unit, we weighted the amount of energy consumed for heating and cooling in each data source using the total area of windows upgraded in the respective case study buildings. The analysis does not include revenues because building owners typically do not generate any revenue from window glass installed. 

Table 2. Cost per unit of climate impact.

Unit: 2023 US$/t CO₂‑eq , 100-yr basis

Median -123
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Methods and Supporting Data

Methods and Supporting Data

Learning Curve

We found no definitive data on the solution’s learning rate. While the adoption of double glazing grows, some studies have reported rising cost of glass in recent periods (MLI Building Products, 2023). In an assessment of regional float glass price trends, Procurement Resource (n.d.) argued that rising material, energy, and labor costs amid other economic pressures are driving up the cost of glass. Since modern windows are often made using float glass (Asahi India Glass Ltd., 2025), the initial cost could become more expensive.

Speed of Action

Speed of action refers to how quickly a climate solution physically affects the atmosphere after it is deployed. This is different from speed of deployment, which is the pace at which solutions are adopted.

At Project Drawdown, we define the speed of action for each climate solution as emergency brake, gradual, or delayed.

Improve Windows and Glass is a GRADUAL climate solution. It has a steady, linear impact on the atmosphere.

Caveats

Our analysis for this solution focused on the U-value of the glass component alone. It did not include other parameters such as the material type of the window frames or coatings on windows, though these also impact space heating and cooling energy use (Owolabi et al., 2023). We ensured that the data used in our analysis aligned with our approach (i.e., indicated the impact of solely substituting double-glazed or better glass for single-glazed). Due to limited data, we assumed that current adoption in LMICs is 5%. The adoption scenarios and climate impact may be influenced if the actual percentage is higher or lower.

A window’s orientation impacts the solar heat gain. Thus, the influence of upgrading to double-glazing on heating or cooling loads is affected by window placement. We found limited data that incorporates orientation and did not account for this difference.

Recently, some studies have indicated concerns about the payback period of upgrading to double glazing for building owners (Calautit et al., 2025), especially in LMICs, where higher initial costs could be a barrier. Creative initiatives such as incentive schemes can improve the payback period (Aruta et al., 2025). 

Current Adoption

To determine the current adoption of double-glazed windows, we first estimated the total amount of window glass installed in buildings by applying window-to-floor area ratios from studies to the currently existing 198.1 billion m2 residential and 54.6 billion m2 nonresidential building floor space (IEA, 2023f). This yielded approximately 23.3 billion m2 and 42.2 billion m2 of window glass installed in high-income countries (HICs) and low- and middle-income countries (LMICs), respectively (IEA, 2023c). 

We found limited data for the proportion of minimum double-glazed windows in HICs. The U.S. Energy Information Administration (U.S. EIA, 2023) reported that 80 million housing units (65%) in the U.S. have double-glazed windows installed. Percentages reported for other countries include 88% of housing units in the United Kingdom (Department for Levelling Up, Housing and Communities, 2023), 90% in Canada (Natural Resources Canada, n.d.), and 15% in Australia (Paarhammer, n.d.). Using these percentages, we estimated a 76% (median) solution adoption rate in HICs.

Since we found no definitive data for the solution’s adoption in LMICs, and considering a few LMICs have building energy codes that either mandate or encourage the use of higher performing windows (Gaum, 2023; Gaum & Laubscher, 2022), we assumed that double-glazed windows represent a conservative underestimate of 5%. 

All told, we estimate that as of 2022, installed double-glazed windows in buildings cover roughly 19.9 billion m2 globally (Table 3).

Table 3. Current (2022) adoption level.

Unit: m2 windows minimum double-glazed

25th percentile 14,300,000,000
Mean 17,100,000,000
Median (50th percentile) 19,900,000,000
75th percentile 22,700,000,000
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Adoption Trend

According to the Department for Levelling Up, Housing and Communities (2023), the percentage of UK homes that have double-glazed windows increased by 9% between 2012 and 2022. Similarly, adoption grew by about 6% in five years (2015–2020) in the United States (U.S. EIA, 2018). Using these countries as representatives, this growth translates to approximately 438–448 million m2 of double-glazed or better windows being added every year in HICs.

We found limited data for adoption trends in LMICs. Based on our assumption for the current adoption in LMICs, we assumed that the percentage adoption of double-glazed windows grew by 4% over 10 years (2012–2022). This assumption, which is likely a conservative underestimate, translates to an annual addition of about 178 million m2/yr of double glazing.

Based on these findings, we estimate that the adoption of double glazing or better windows has grown globally by nearly 622 million m2 annually (Table 4).

Historically, the bulk of the solution’s adoption has occurred in HICs. However, the Global Alliance for Buildings and Construction, IEA, and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) emphasize that adopting double-glazed windows is a necessary sustainability strategy for the building sector, especially in Africa and LMICs (GlobalABC/IEA/UNEP, 2020). This indicates considerable potential for scaling the solution, with 76% of the global building sector’s growth in the past 12 years occurring in LMICs (IEA, 2023f), where there has been less adoption of double glazing or better windows.

Table 4. 2010–2022 adoption trend.

Unit: m2/yr

25th percentile 620,000,000
Mean 622,000,000
Median (50th percentile) 622,000,000
75th percentile 624,000,000
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Adoption Ceiling

We estimated an adoption ceiling (Table 5) of approximately 46.7 billion m2 of double-glazed windows globally. For this adoption scenario, 90% and 61% of window glass that existed in 2022 will be retrofitted to double-glazed or better by 2050 in buildings in HICs and buildings in LMICs, respectively.

In our analysis, we used the current double-glazed windows ratio of 90% in Canada (Natural Resources Canada, n.d) as a benchmark for the building sector’s adoption ceiling in HICs. For buildings in LMICs, we used the IEA’s recommended 2%/yr retrofit rate (IEA, 2022b) over 28 years (2022–2050). This estimated 56% growth was added to the current adoption of 5% to determine the region’s adoption ceiling. The analysis results in about 21 billion m2 and 26 billion m2 of double-glazed windows installed in buildings in HICs and LMICs, respectively.

Table 5. Adoption ceiling.

Unit: m2 windows minimum double-glazed

Estimate 46,700,000,000
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Achievable Adoption

Our analysis estimated a low achievable adoption of approximately 32.9 billion m2 of double-glazed or better windows installed in buildings globally (Table 6). For this scenario, we estimate that the percentage of windows that were at minimum double-glazed as of 2022 in buildings in HICs (76%) and buildings in LMICs (5%) grows to 81% and 33%, respectively.

Under the high achievable scenario, 86% of window glass in buildings in HICs and 47% of window glass in buildings in LMICs is at minimum double-glazed. This translates to a total of nearly 40.0 billion m2 of double glazing or better installed by 2050.

The achievable adoption scenarios are largely driven by the growth that is possible in LMICs. We assumed a retrofit rate of 1%/yr for the Achievable – Low scenario, which is the current global retrofit rate in the building industry (IEA, 2022b); for Achievable – High, we used 1.5%/yr. We also assumed that the current (2022) building stock will still be in use by 2050.

Table 6. Range of achievable adoption levels.

Unit: m2 windows minimum double-glazed

Current adoption 19,900,000,000
Achievable – low 32,900,000,000
Achievable – high 40,000,000,000
Adoption ceiling 46,700,000,000
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The current adoption of double-glazed windows in buildings reduces global GHG emissions by approximately 1.3 Gt CO₂‑eq/yr on a 100-yr and 20-yr basis (Table 7). If the low achievable adoption scenario is reached, this solution could potentially cut about 2.1 Gt CO₂‑eq/yr (100-yr and 20-yr basis). The high achievable scenario would decrease global emissions 2.6 Gt CO₂‑eq/yr year (100-yr and 20-yr basis). We estimated that the adoption ceiling could avoid up to 3.0 Gt CO₂‑eq/yr of emissions on a 100-yr basis (3.1 Gt CO₂‑eq/yr, 20-yr basis).

This solution only accounts for the impact of retrofitting the building stock that exists as of 2022. However, the current global built floor area (252.7 billion m2) is projected to grow by an additional 183 billion m2, by 2050 (IEA, 2022a; 2023b). This means a possible addition of 1.6 billion m2 of new window glass every year, indicating that the potential for scaling the climate impact exists.

Table 7. Climate impact at different levels of adoption.

Unit: Gt CO₂‑eq/yr, 100-yr basis

Current adoption 1.3
Achievable – low 2.1
Achievable – high 2.6
Adoption ceiling 3.0
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Additional Benefits

Income and Work

While multi-glazed windows are often more of an initial investment than single-pane windows, improved performance of these windows is associated with more energy and cost savings (Menzies & Wherrett, 2005). Regional climates often affect the most appropriate window type and the amount of savings (Karabay & Arici, 2012). In residential buildings, double-glazed windows can add value to homes and increase property values (Aroul & Hansz, 2011). 

Health

Reductions in air pollution due to lower heating and cooling demand decrease exposures to pollutants such as mercury and fine particulate matter generated from fossil fuel–based power plants, improving the health of nearby communities (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency [EPA], 2025). These pollutants have been linked to increased morbidity from cardiovascular and respiratory disease, asthma, infections, and cancer (Gasparotto & Martinello, 2021) and to increased risk of mortality (Henneman et al., 2023). 

Better-performing windows can benefit health through improved thermal comfort (Bulut et al., 2021). When combined with other measures to reduce cooling loads, double-glazed windows can help with the risk of indoor heat stress (Ren et al., 2014). Improved windows may also reduce condensation and mold growth in buildings (Lozinsky et al., 2025). Residents of households with double-glazed windows have reported improvements in noise insulation after retrofitting single-pane windows (Bulut et al., 2021). 

Air Quality

Higher-performing glass can reduce air pollution by lowering gas and electricity demand for heating and cooling, which can decrease pollutants such as CO₂, nitrogen oxides, methane, mercury, and fine particulate matter generated from fossil fuel–based power plants (U.S. EPA, 2025).

Risks

Faulty installation could compromise the expected benefits of double glazing. It could also lead to condensation on the inner pane if the sealant deteriorates, affecting visibility, aesthetics, and performance and resulting in a potential shorter lifespan than single glazing (Duan et al., 2021; Likins-White, 2023). Additional costs may be incurred when attempting to secure adequate expertise and equipment to ensure proper handling and installation (DIY Double Glaze, n.d.). Depending on the extent of the retrofits, this may drive up construction costs, which is a concern for building developers. However, it also represents opportunities to improve available technical expertise in regions where these services are unavailable or underdeveloped.

Interactions with Other Solutions

Reinforcing

Improve Windows and Glass reduces the amount of space heating and cooling required. This may reduce the required size and complexity of heating and cooling systems, making them more economically accessible.

Upgrading window glass can motivate building owners to improve other elements of the building envelope. This could improve the cost efficiency of the upgrades when approached holistically. 

Competing

The potential climate impact of deploying these solutions could be lower due to the reduced amount of space heating and cooling required in buildings from improving window glass.

Dashboard

Solution Basics

m2 windows minimum double-glazed

t CO₂-eq (100-yr)/unit/yr
00.040.065median
units
Current 1.99×10¹⁰ 03.29×10¹⁰4.0×10¹⁰
Achievable (Low to High)

Climate Impact

Gt CO₂-eq (100-yr)/yr
Current 1.3 2.12.6
US$ per t CO₂-eq
-123
Gradual

CO₂ , CH₄, N₂O

Trade-offs

Manufacturing double-glazed or better windows generates more industrial sector emissions than does manufacturing single-glazed windows due to the additional materials used. However, life-cycle analysis studies such as Balasbaneh et al. (2022) compared different glazing options ranging from single to triple glazing and determined that the emissions reduced by using better windows outweighs the embodied emissions. Although it is outside the scope of this solution, window frames account for as much as 46–80% of a window's embodied emissions, especially when using conventional window frame materials such as polyvinyl chloride and aluminum (Saadatian et al., 2021). Despite the higher embodied emissions, the emissions reductions from implementing the solution are substantial.

°C days
015,000

Space heating demand (18 °C basis)

Heating degree days are a measure of total space-heating demand to maintain an indoor temperature above 18 °C. Here we show annual average heating degree days for the decade ending in 2025.

Copernicus Climate Change Service. (2023). ERA5 hourly data on single levels from 1940 to present [Data set]. Copernicus Climate Change Service (C3S) Climate Data Store (CDS). Retrieved January 13, 2026 from Link to source: https://doi.org/10.24381/cds.adbb2d47 

Hersbach, H., Bell, B., Berrisford, P., Hirahara, S., Horányi, A., Muñoz‐Sabater, J., Nicolas, J., Peubey, C., Radu, R., Schepers, D., Simmins, A., Soci, C., Abdalla, S., Abellan, X., Balsamo, G., Bechtold, P., Biavati, G., Bidlot, J., Bonavita, M., … Thépaut, J. N. (2020). The ERA5 global reanalysis. Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society, 146(730), 1999–2049. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.3803

°C days
015,000

Space heating demand (18 °C basis)

Heating degree days are a measure of total space-heating demand to maintain an indoor temperature above 18 °C. Here we show annual average heating degree days for the decade ending in 2025.

Copernicus Climate Change Service. (2023). ERA5 hourly data on single levels from 1940 to present [Data set]. Copernicus Climate Change Service (C3S) Climate Data Store (CDS). Retrieved January 13, 2026 from Link to source: https://doi.org/10.24381/cds.adbb2d47 

Hersbach, H., Bell, B., Berrisford, P., Hirahara, S., Horányi, A., Muñoz‐Sabater, J., Nicolas, J., Peubey, C., Radu, R., Schepers, D., Simmins, A., Soci, C., Abdalla, S., Abellan, X., Balsamo, G., Bechtold, P., Biavati, G., Bidlot, J., Bonavita, M., … Thépaut, J. N. (2020). The ERA5 global reanalysis. Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society, 146(730), 1999–2049. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.3803

Maps Introduction

The effectiveness of replacing single-glazed windows in buildings to mitigate climate change varies depending on how buildings are heated and the emissions intensity of electricity used for cooling in each region. We used regional data for the share of heating fuel in buildings (IEA, 2023a). For the electricity used to provide cooling in buildings, we used a global estimate for emission intensity. While the need for heating has historically outweighed the need for cooling, global trends show a steady increase in cooling degree days and a decline in heating degree days, even in colder climates (Eurostat, 2024; U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. EPA), 2024). Nonetheless, studies such as Kennard et al. (2022) claim that population growth, especially in cooling-dominated climates, will drive rising cooling demand. This growth could potentially drive up the amount of electricity needed to air condition buildings (Waite et al. 2017).

Building energy efficiency codes, especially mandatory regulations, could help drive the adoption of the solution via higher U-value requirements for windows and glass, particularly in low- and middle-income countries (Gaum, 2023). Our analysis also shows that the cost of double-glazed windows varies by country and region.

Action Word
Improve
Solution Title
Windows & Glass
Classification
Highly Recommended

Lawmakers and Policymakers
  • Set clear and measurable targets for building efficiency, emissions reduction, and the deployment of improved windows.
  • Enact holistic policy plans and building codes to reduce GHG emissions from buildings through improved windows and framing systems.
  • Set public procurement standards for windows and glass, using double-glazed windows, at minimum, for public buildings.
  • Amend building codes to include minimum requirements based on window performance; gradually increase the standards over time if necessary.
  • Periodically update codes, policies, and public guidance to keep pace with research and development.
  • Make double-glazed windows the minimum standard option through a range of policy interventions, including regulations, subsidies, and educational programs where relevant; extend incentives to high performing secondary-, double- or triple-glazed windows, if relevant.
  • Offer financial incentives such as subsidies, tax credits, and grants for consumers, manufacturers, start-ups, and improved window installers.
  • Ensure financial incentives reach, and offer additional incentives for, low- and middle-income communities.
  • Ensure financial incentives cover both new installations and retrofits.
  • Create financial disincentives such as higher taxes and fines for lower performing windows.
  • Subsidize workforce or skills development and/or work with businesses to identify gaps and needs such as technical knowledge or the advantages of new technology.
  • Invest in research and development to improve window design, manufacturing, adoption, supply chain access, and circularity.
  • Create green building certification schemes and/or public-private partnerships that offer information, training, and general support for improved windows.
  • Offer educational resources, one-stop shops for windows, and demonstrations for installation and retrofits; offer tours of model builds that feature improved windows for commercial and private developers, highlighting the cost savings, and environmental benefits.

Further information:

Practitioners
  • Finance or develop only new construction and retrofits that use improved windows and other low-carbon practices.
  • Take advantage of financial incentives such as subsidies, tax credits, and grants for installing improved windows.
  • Seek or negotiate preferential loan agreements for developers using improved windows and other climate-friendly practices.
  • Use double-glazed windows as the most basic standard and offer a variety of better-performing options such as triple-glazed.
  • Work with designers and architects who integrate efficient windows and other efficient materials into their designs.
  • Integrate improved window designs into construction databases, including listing prices, thermal insulation properties, and environmental benefits.
  • Advocate for financial incentives, improved building codes, and educational programs advancing the use of improved windows.
  • Use educational resources, one-stop shops for retrofitting and weatherization, installation demonstrations, and tours of model builds.
  • Conduct research to improve the manufacturing, adoption, supply chain access, and circularity of windows.
  • Create or join green building certification schemes, green building councils, and/or public-private partnerships that offer information, training, and general support for improving windows.

Further information:

Business Leaders
  • Finance only new construction and retrofits that use improved windows and other low-carbon practices.
  • Expand product lines to include improved window designs.
  • Integrate improved window designs into construction databases, listing prices, thermal insulation properties, and environmental benefits.
  • Invest in research and development to improve window design, manufacturing, adoption, supply chain access, and circularity.
  • Advocate for financial incentives, improved building codes, and educational programs advancing the use of improved windows.
  • Join green building certification schemes and/or public-private partnerships that offer information, training, and general support for improved windows.
  • Create long-term purchasing agreements with improved window manufacturers to support stable demand and improve economies of scale.
  • Create or join green building certification schemes, green building councils, and/or public-private partnerships that offer information, training, and general support for improved windows.

Further information:

Nonprofit Leaders
  • Finance or develop only new construction and retrofits that use improved windows and other low-carbon practices.
  • Advocate for clear and measurable public targets for building efficiency, emissions reduction, and deployment of improved windows.
  • Advocate for holistic policy plans and building codes to reduce GHG emissions from buildings that include improved windows and framing systems.
  • Advocate for financial incentives, improved building codes, and educational programs advancing the use of improved windows.
  • Conduct research to improve window design, manufacturing, adoption, supply chain access, and circularity.
  • Work with businesses for workforce or skills development.
  • Offer educational resources, one-stop shops for windows, and demonstrations for installation and retrofits; offer tours of model builds that feature improved windows for commercial and private developers, highlighting the cost savings and environmental benefits.
  • Create, join, or administer green building certification schemes and/or public-private partnerships that offer information, training, and general support for improved windows.

Further information:

Investors
  • Finance only new construction and retrofits that use improved windows and other low-carbon practices.
  • Invest in research and development and start-ups to improve window design, manufacturing, adoption, supply chain access, and circularity.
  • Issue green bonds to invest in projects that use improved windows and integrate other climate-friendly construction practices.
  • Offer preferential loan agreements for developers using improved windows and other climate-friendly practices.
  • Join green building certification schemes and/or public-private partnerships that offer information, training, and general support for improved windows.

Further information:

Philanthropists and International Aid Agencies
  • Finance only new construction and retrofits that use improved windows and other low-carbon practices.
  • Offer grants for developers using improved windows and other climate-friendly practices.
  • Create financing programs for private construction in low-income or under-resourced communities requiring the use of improved windows.
  • Advocate for clear and measurable public targets for building efficiency, emissions reduction, and the deployment of improved windows.
  • Advocate for holistic policy plans and building codes to reduce GHG emissions from buildings that include improved windows and framing systems.
  • Advocate for financial incentives, improved building codes, and educational programs for improved windows.
  • Fund research to improve window design, manufacturing, adoption, supply chain access, and circularity.
  • Offer educational resources, one-stop shops for retrofitting and weatherization, installation demonstrations, and tours of model builds for commercial and private developers, highlighting the cost savings and environmental benefits.
  • Create, join, or administer green building certification schemes and/or public-private partnerships that offer information, training, and general support for improved windows.

Further information:

Thought Leaders
  • Advocate for clear and measurable public targets for building efficiency, emissions reduction, and the deployment of improved windows.
  • Advocate for holistic policy plans and building codes to reduce GHG emissions from buildings that include improved windows and framing systems.
  • Advocate for financial incentives, improved building codes, and educational programs for improved windows.
  • Conduct research to improve window design, manufacturing, adoption, supply chain access, and circularity.
  • Contract with businesses for workforce or skills development.
  • Offer or support educational resources, one-stop shops for retrofitting and weatherization, installation demonstrations, and tours of model builds for commercial and private developers, highlighting the cost savings and environmental benefits of improved windows.
  • Create, join, or administer green building certification schemes and/or public-private partnerships that offer information, training, and general support for improved windows.

Further information:

Technologists and Researchers
  • Research and develop high-performance window technologies such as vacuum glazing, aerogel applications, potential integration of solar photovoltaic glass, and the use of unconventional gases to fill multi-pane windows and improve performance.
  • Create improved alternatives to common practices for air and vapor sealing.
  • Find alternative materials for spacers with reduced thermal conductivity in double- and triple-glazed windows.
  • Research and develop alternative window frame designs to improve thermal performance, structural insulating materials, and improve ease of installation (e.g., out-of-the-box window installation kits).
  • Improve efficiency of the window manufacturing process, supply chain access, and the circular economy of glass.

Further information:

Communities, Households, and Individuals
  • Finance or develop only new construction and retrofits that use improved windows and other low-carbon practices.
  • Take advantage of financial incentives such as subsidies, tax credits, and grants for installing improved windows.
  • Advocate for clear and measurable public targets for building efficiency, emissions reduction, and the deployment of improved windows.
  • Advocate for holistic policy plans and building codes to reduce GHG emissions from buildings that include improved windows and framing systems.
  • Advocate for financial incentives, improved building codes, and educational programs for improved windows.
  • Organize local “green home tours” and open houses to showcase climate-friendly builds, fostering demand by highlighting cost savings and environmental benefits of improved windows.
  • Capture community feedback and share it with local policymakers to address barriers such as permitting logistics or up-front costs, helping to shape policies that drive adoption.
  • Create, join, or administer green building certification schemes and/or public-private partnerships that offer information, training, and general support for improved windows.

Further information:

“Take Action” Sources
Evidence Base

Consensus of effectiveness in reducing GHG emissions: High

Improving windows and glass helps optimize the amount of heating required in buildings by reducing heat loss. Calautit et al. (2025) reported that energy used for heating in a United Kingdom residence dropped nearly 23% after reducing the glass U-value from 5.6 W/m2K to 2.8 W/m2K. Using the same building parameters, the study tested the impact of reducing the U-value by 1.35 W/m2K in the climatic conditions of Netherlands, Japan, United States, Sweden and Australia. The outcomes were similar, with about a 10–12% reduction in heating loads (Calautit et al., 2025). The results from Yuk et al. (2024), Magraoui et al. (2025), and Ahmed et al. (2025) further support these findings. 

Similarly, the solution reduces heat gained from the outdoors into buildings, thereby cutting cooling loads. Gomaa et al. (2025) reported that energy use in a Saudi Arabian residence was reduced by 1,265 kWh/yr (49%) after improving the glass U-value from 5.6 to 0.9 W/m2K (84%). Es-sakali et al. (2022) recorded 36% less electricity consumed after reducing the U-value by 1.44 W/m2K in Morocco’s climate.

The results presented in this document summarize findings from 10 original studies reflecting current evidence from 13 countries. We recognize this limited geographic scope creates bias, and hope this work inspires research and data sharing on this topic in underrepresented regions. The studies we found used simulations to assess the impact of retrofitting windows due to the inherent difficulty of real-world experiments. However, we used studies that include field measurements and calibration of the building simulations to validate their models.

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