Cut Emissions Electricity Shift Production

Deploy Distributed Solar PV

Highly Recommended
Solar panels on house roof

Distributed solar photovoltaic (PV) systems are small-scale solar PV systems – usually under 1 MW, and installed near the point of use, such as on homes, businesses, or local facilities – that generate electricity for on-site consumption or local grid supply. This solution reduces reliance on centralized fossil-fuel power, cutting GHG emissions and minimizing transmission losses. There are various configurations of distributed solar PV systems; our analysis includes residential systems on homes, commercial and industrial (C&I) systems on businesses or institutions, and mini-grid solar PV systems, which are often coupled with storage.

Last updated May 27, 2026

Solution Basics

MW installed capacity

t CO₂-eq (100-yr)/unit/yr
650
units
Current 708,000 04.3×10⁶5.3×10⁶
Achievable (Low to High)

Climate Impact

Gt CO₂-eq (100-yr)/yr
Current 0.46 2.83.5
Gradual

CO₂ , CH₄, N₂O, BC

Additional Benefits

180
183,184,186,187
    183
    • 184
    • 185
    • 186
    • 187
    • 188
194

Overview

An estimated 23% of GHG emissions on a 100-yr basis comes from electricity generation annually (Clarke et al., 2022). In 2022, more than 60% of global electricity generation came from fossil fuel–based energy sources (International Energy Agency [IEA], 2024a). Since solar is a clean and renewable resource, distributed solar PV does not contribute to GHG emissions or air pollution while generating electricity. Deploy Distributed Solar PV reduces the need for electricity generation from fossil fuels, which reduces emissions of CO₂ as well as smaller amounts of methane and nitrous oxide. 

Distributed solar PV systems are decentralized energy systems that generate electricity from sunlight at or near the point of use. These systems are commonly installed on residential, commercial, and institutional rooftops, converting solar radiation directly into usable electricity through PV cells. These cells are grouped into modules, which in turn form panels and arrays (U.S. Department of Energy [DOE], n.d.) that deliver electricity to consumers (Figure 1). Their modular nature allows flexible system sizing, making distributed solar PV well-suited to varying energy demands, rooftop space, and financial capacity. Distributed solar PV systems are typically installed and operated by homeowners, businesses, municipalities, and third-party service providers. 

Figure 1. Distributed solar PV systems are commonly installed on residential, commercial, and institutional rooftops, converting solar radiation directly into usable electricity. Photovoltaic cells are grouped into modules, which in turn form panels and arrays that deliver electricity to consumers for on-site use. In some cases, excess generation can be exported to the grid. Modified from Engineering Discoveries (n.d.).

Diagram showing solar photovoltaic on a grid system

Source: Engineering Discoveries. (n.d.). Solar power plant main components, working, advantages and disadvantages.

The primary climate benefit of distributed solar PV is the reduction of CO₂ emissions. By generating zero-emissions electricity on-site, these systems displace electricity that would otherwise be supplied by fossil fuel–based grid power and reduce demand on electricity transmission from power plants to consumers. In doing so, distributed solar PV also avoids upstream emissions of methane and nitrous oxide associated with the extraction, transportation, and combustion of fossil fuels.

A significant number of distributed solar PV systems supply electricity directly to the buildings where they are installed, which offsets grid demand and lowers electricity bills for PV owners. In some cases, excess generation can be exported to the grid, contributing to the broader renewable electricity mix and reducing peak loads and system cost (Rahdan et al., 2024). Distributed solar PV systems therefore provide both emissions reductions and grid benefits (Tran et al., 2023; Uzum et al., 2021; Zhang et al., 2025). 

Although distributed solar PV systems typically have lower capacity factors than utility-scale solar systems, they require less land, avoid transmission losses, and enable clean electricity access in urban, peri-urban, and rural areas. Implementation is primarily led by households, small businesses, public entities, and local developers. Governments and utilities often provide incentives such as subsidies, feed-in tariffs, or tax credits to stimulate deployment. Continued cost declines – especially in balance-of-system (BoS) and soft costs like labor and permitting – are expected to increase adoption. Distributed solar PV offers a scalable, low-carbon electricity solution that supports both climate mitigation and energy equity.

Impact Calculator

Adjust effectiveness and adoption using range sliders to see resulting climate impact potential.

Effectiveness

650
t CO2-eq/MW installed capacity/yr

Adoption

708,000
MW installed capacity
Low
4.3×10⁶
High
5.3×10⁶
708,000
current
Achievable Range

Climate Impact

0.46
Gt CO₂-eq/yr (100-yr)
05
which is the equivalent of
0.78%
of global emissions

The Details

Current State

Based on IEA World Energy Balances, global emissions from electricity generation accounted for an estimated 530 kg CO₂‑eq /MWh (540 kg CO₂‑eq /MWh, 20-yr basis; IEA, 2024a; see Methodology: Appendix A for calculation details). To convert from MWh to MW, we used the median global average capacity factor for distributed solar PV of 14% (Jacobson et al., 2017). Distributed solar PV is estimated to reduce emissions by 650 t CO₂‑eq /MW/yr (660 t CO₂‑eq /MW/yr, 20-yr basis; Table 1).

Table 1. Effectiveness at reducing emissions.

Unit: t CO₂‑eq /MW installed capacity/yr, 100-yr basis

Estimate 650

We assumed that newly installed distributed solar PV displaces an equivalent MWh of the global electricity grid mix. We then assumed the reduction in emissions from additional distributed solar PV capacity was equal to emissions (per MWh) from the 2023 global electricity grid mix (IEA, 2024a). Since new distributed solar PV does not displace an equivalent MWh of the global grid mix, actual avoided emissions will depend on conditions of the local grid at a particular time and place, including the level of solar already deployed, regional solar radiation, and grid carbon intensity. As a result, our global effectiveness estimate may differ significantly from regional estimates. Studies in the United States show that for 2007–2015, avoided emissions from solar were approximately 0.5 t CO₂ /MWh (613 t CO₂ /MW/yr; Millstein et al., 2017), and a 15% increase in deployment avoided 8.54 Mt CO₂ /yr (Biswas et al., 2025). For regions that rely heavily on fossil-fuel generators for electricity generation, widespread adoption of distributed solar PV could cut emissions much more than estimated here (Sustainable Energy for All, 2024). 

Distributed solar PV systems have no operational emissions and low life-cycle GHG footprints. We excluded carbon payback time and embodied life-cycle emissions from manufacturing, transport, installation, and end-of-life processing in our estimates of effectiveness and climate impacts. Life-cycle emissions of rooftop solar PV systems were 25.5–42.9 g CO₂‑eq /kWh, depending on the module technology used (IEA-PVPS, 2022). This is significantly lower than fossil fuel–based electricity generation, which can exceed 1,000 g CO₂‑eq /kWh (Gibon et al., 2021).

We estimated a mean levelized cost of electricity (LCOE) for distributed solar PV of US$145/MWh based on two key industry reports (International Renewable Energy Agency [IRENA], 2020; IEA & NEA, 2020; see Methodology: Appendix A for details). LCOE values represent the average cost of producing one MWh of electricity over the operational lifetime of a power plant, allowing investors to compare their expected revenue to a standard set of costs. International agencies have used this cost metric to estimate total costs of power generation technologies, incorporating installed capital costs, operation and maintenance, project lifespan, and energy output.

While distributed solar PV generally carries a higher cost per MWh than utility-scale solar (IRENA, 2020), rapid declines in cost have been observed across rooftop and mini-grid markets. Residential rooftop PV systems, for instance, saw their average LCOE drop from US$0.301/kWh (US$301/MWh) in 2010 to US$0.063/kWh (US$63/MWh) in 2019 – a 79% reduction driven by falling module prices, better installation methods, and policy support (IRENA, 2020). Similarly, commercial-scale rooftop PV (≤500 kW) achieved its lowest country-level LCOEs – of US$0.062/kWh (US$62/MWh) in India, and US$0.064/kWh (US$64/MWh) in China – during the same period (IRENA, 2020).

Distributed solar PV exhibits a pronounced learning curve, most clearly reflected in the steady decline of solar module prices as global deployment expands. The median learning rate for PV modules is estimated at 34%, meaning module prices fall by roughly one-third with every doubling of installed capacity (Table 2). Significant economies of scale over the past decade have driven an even steeper learning rate of 42% (Masson et al., 2024). Similarly, a historical assessment (Philipps & Warmuth, 2025) found that module prices have decreased by 25.7% per doubling over the past 44 years, reinforcing the scale-driven cost reduction dynamics in the distributed solar market. Our estimated learning rate is based on trends of the past decade, while a longer historical estimate would reveal lower learning rates.

Table 2. Learning rate: drop in cost per doubling of the installed solution base, 2010–2023.

Unit: %

25th percentile 30
Mean 34
Median (50th percentile) 34
75th percentile 38

Looking forward, the pace of module cost decline is expected to slow somewhat. According to the DNV 2024 Energy Transition Outlook (DNV, 2024), the current global learning rate for module costs is about 26%, but projections suggest this rate will slow to around 17% by 2050 as cost components stabilize and the largest gains from scaling are realized. 

In addition to modules, distributed solar PV costs are significantly influenced by BoS components, which include inverters, racking, labor, permitting, and customer acquisition. While these costs are more localized and less exposed to global manufacturing dynamics, they have also followed a learning trajectory. Elshurafa et al. (2018) analyzed BoS costs across more than 20 countries and found a global learning curve of 89%, corresponding to a BoS learning rate of 11%. This is lower than the module rate but nonetheless meaningful – especially in markets where soft costs dominate. 

In the United States, residential distributed solar PV system costs fell 76% between 2010 and 2024, while commercial rooftop PV system costs declined 84% during the same period (Ramasamy et al., 2025). These reductions reflect improvements in module efficiency, digital tools for system design and sales, streamlined installation, and, in some regions, lower permitting and inspection costs.

Still, challenges remain. In mature distributed markets such as the United States, costs other than hardware – such as labor, permitting, interconnection fees, and customer acquisition – continue to account for the majority of overall system prices (Barbose et al., 2023; Dong et al., 2023). 

The term speed of action refers to how quickly a climate solution physically affects the atmosphere after it is deployed. This is separate from the speed of deployment, which is the pace at which solutions are adopted.

At Project Drawdown, we define the speed of action for each climate solution as emergency brake, gradual, and delayed.

Deploy Distributed Solar PV is a GRADUAL climate solution. It has a steady, linear impact on the atmosphere. As installed capacity of distributed solar PV increases over time, emissions from electricity generation are expected to decrease, assuming solar and other renewables displace fossil fuel sources.

Adoption

We estimated current adoption of distributed solar PV based on IEA reports (IEA, 2023; Masson et al., 2024). As of 2023, the global installed capacity for distributed solar PV reached approximately 708,000 MW (Table 3). Although we used 2023 as our baseline for current adoption, an estimated additional 182,000 MW of distributed solar PV capacity was installed in 2024 – bringing the global total to more than 890,000 MW (IEA, 2023).

Table 3. Current adoption level, 2023.

Unit: MW installed capacity

25th percentile 702,000
Mean 708,000
Median (50th percentile) 708,000
75th percentile 715,000

From 2011–2016, the global distributed solar PV market remained relatively stable, with annual installations ranging between 16 and 19 GW (Masson et al., 2024). This trend shifted significantly when China expanded its domestic distributed solar PV sector, implementing policy and infrastructure measures that nearly doubled market capacity between 2016 and 2018. By 2023, global distributed solar PV installations had reached 189.0 GW annually – up from 177.7 GW of new capacity added in 2022 (Masson et al., 2024). In recent years, many countries, particularly in Europe, have adopted collective and distributed self-consumption models as a new framework for residential and commercial electricity customers. This approach increases access to self-generated renewable electricity, even for consumers unable to install their own PV systems. 

Off-grid solar PV applications are expanding too, primarily driven by rural electrification efforts across Asia, Africa, and parts of South America (World Bank Group, 2024). In many remote areas, especially in Africa and Asia, off-grid and mini-grid systems with storage serve as viable alternatives to grid extension or as interim solutions before future grid connections. For further details, see the Geographic Guidance section.

Based on the IEA’s solar PV power capacity in the Net Zero Scenario (IEA, 2023), we calculated the global adoption trend by summing global adoption for each year 2015–2023 and taking the year-to-year difference. Comparing year-to-year global adoption, the median global adoption trend was adding 54,000 MW/yr of installed capacity, but expansion was unevenly distributed geographically (Table 4, Figure 2).

Figure 2. Global adoption of distributed solar PV, 2015–2023.

Source: International Energy Agency. (2023). Solar PV power capacity in the Net Zero Scenario, 2015-2030. License: CC BY 4.0

Table 4. Adoption trend, 2015–2023.

Unit: MW installed capacity/yr

25th percentile 40,300
Mean 72,400
Median (50th percentile) 54,000
75th percentile 80,800

Global distributed solar PV deployment more than sextupled between 2015 and 2023, growing from 116 GW to 695 GW of installed capacity (Figure 2; IEA, 2023). Growth in the mid-2010s was relatively moderate, with yearly additions rising gradually from 19 GW in 2016 to 45 GW by 2019. However, a notable acceleration began after 2020. Annual capacity additions jumped from 63 GW in 2020 to 192 GW in 2023 – more than tripling in just three years (IEA, 2023). This surge reflects growing policy support, cost declines, and higher demand for behind-the-meter solar solutions. The rolling trendline since 2015 now averages 72 GW/yr, nearly double the average before 2020. This trend is likely to continue as distributed solar PV continues to gain ground in both developed and emerging markets.

For this analysis, we adopt a global median estimate of 17.4 million MW installed capacity as the adoption ceiling for distributed solar PV (Table 5). The adoption ceiling for distributed solar PV is determined by the global technical potential of rooftop surfaces, parking structures, and other built environments suitable for solar PV deployment. Unlike utility-scale systems that require dedicated land, distributed solar PV leverages existing infrastructure – primarily the rooftops of residential, commercial, and government buildings.

Estimates of the technical potential for distributed solar PV vary considerably across the literature, reflecting differences in study period, system types included, and methodological approaches. Despite these variations, recent global assessments converge on the view that rooftop and other distributed solar PV systems offer substantial potential, though they are constrained by surface area availability and system efficiencies. A meta-analysis by de La Beaumelle et al. (2023) reported rooftop solar PV technical potential ranging from 6 PWh/yr to 69 PWh/yr, with a median of 15.8 PWh/yr and an average of 21.1 PWh/yr (de La Beaumelle et al., 2023). Another study estimated the global net energy potential from rooftop PV at 7.81 PWh/yr for residential rooftops and 8.02 PWh/yr for commercial rooftops. Similarly, Deng et al. (2015) estimated the global technical potential of rooftop PV systems at 33.6 PWh/yr, with an additional 25 PWh/yr from building facades (Deng et al., 2015), while Joshi et al. (2021) identified approximately 0.2 million km2 of suitable rooftop area from 130 million km2 of global land surface, corresponding to an estimated electricity generation potential of 27 PWh/yr (Joshi et al., 2021).

Key constraints to distributed solar PV adoption include rooftop suitability (such as shading, tilt, and orientation), grid integration, permitting hurdles, and up-front costs (Sengupta et al., 2024; Masson et al., 2025). While these barriers may limit near-term deployment, innovations like building-integrated photovoltaics, virtual net metering, and smart inverters offer pathways to expand deployment.

Table 5. Adoption ceiling: upper limit for adoption.

Unit: MW installed capacity

25th percentile 12,400,000
Mean 23,400,000
Median (50th percentile) 17,400,000
75th percentile 28,500,000

The IEA’s World Energy Outlook (WEO) 2024 presented several scenarios that explored future energy pathways under different assumptions about policies, technologies, and markets (IEA, 2024b). For this analysis, we defined the adoption achievable range for distributed solar PV based on the Stated Policies Scenario (STEPS) and the Announced Pledges Scenario (APS) (IEA, 2024b). However, the WEO does not explicitly distinguish between distributed and utility-scale solar PV in its projections. To bridge this gap, we conducted a simple linear projection using historical deployment trends to estimate the likely share of distributed solar PV within total solar PV capacity. Our analysis suggests that by 2050, distributed solar PV could represent approximately 26% of all solar PV deployment. This finding is consistent with IRENA’s REmap analysis, which projects that utility-scale systems will account for 60–80% of global solar PV capacity by mid-century (IRENA, 2019). Accordingly, for our study we assume that 26% of the IEA’s projected solar PV deployment in 2050 will come from distributed solar PV systems. This provides a reasonable basis for estimating achievable adoption, while aligning with both historical patterns and complementary international assessments.

Achievable – Low

The low achievable adoption level is based on STEPS, which reflects the current trajectory of distributed solar PV expansion under existing and announced policies. In this scenario, assuming distributed solar PV projects account for 26% of total solar PV capacity, global capacity is projected to grow about sixfold, from 708,000 MW in 2023 to approximately 4.30 million MW by 2050 (Table 6). This corresponds to an average compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 7.3%.

Table 6. Range of achievable adoption levels.

 Unit: MW installed capacity

Current adoption 708,000
Achievable – low 4,300,000
Achievable – high 5,300,000
Adoption Ceiling 17,400,000

Achievable – High

The high achievable adoption level is based on APS, which assumes the same policy framework as STEPS, plus full realization of announced national energy and climate targets, including net-zero commitments supported by stronger clean energy investments. Under this scenario, distributed solar PV capacity is projected to increase approximately sevenfold from 708,000 MW in 2023 to approximately 5.30 million MW by 2050 (Table 6), requiring a CAGR of 8% over the same period.

Using our adoption ceiling of 17.4 million MW, the current adoption of distributed solar PV constitutes approximately 4.1% of its technical potential. The achievable adoption range, as calculated, is 24.8–30.3% of this potential.

Impacts

Based on baseline global adoption and effectiveness, we estimated the current total climate impact of distributed solar PV to be approximately 0.46 Gt CO₂‑eq (0.47 Gt CO₂‑eq , 20-yr basis) of reduced emissions per year (Table 7). We estimated future climate impacts using the emissions from the 2023 baseline electricity grid; actual emissions reductions could differ depending on how the emissions intensity of electricity generation changes over time. 

Table 7. Climate impact at different levels of adoption.

Unit: Gt CO₂‑eq/yr, 100-yr basis

Current adoption 0.46
Achievable – low 2.8
Achievable – high 3.5
Adoption Ceiling 11

Climate impacts are highly uncertain. They will vary depending on actual emissions intensity, as well as future development of electricity grids, markets and policies, and enabling technologies, like batteries. As solar and other renewables grow to represent an increasingly high percentage of power generation sources, grid emissions are expected to decrease (DNV, 2024; IEA, 2024b), so the climate impacts presented here are likely overestimates. Additionally, in regions with significant solar radiation where utility-scale solar PV is competitive, increased adoption of distributed solar PV could displace utility-scale PV without reducing emissions (Bistline & Watten, 2025). Assuming the existing and announced policies of countries around the world for distributed solar PV installation are backed with adequate provisions for implementation, global adoption could reach 4 million MW by 2050 – resulting in an increased emissions reduction of approximately 2.8 Gt CO₂‑eq/yr (2.9 Gt CO₂‑eq/yr, 20-yr basis). Assuming full realization of all national energy and climate targets (including net-zero commitments) with the support of stronger clean energy investments, distributed solar PV adoption could reach 5 million MW by 2050, which would lead to an estimated 3.5 Gt CO₂‑eq/yr (3.5 Gt CO₂‑eq/yr, 20-yr basis) of reduced emissions. 

We based the adoption ceiling solely on the technical potential of distributed solar PV, while neglecting social and economic constraints and realistic scenarios of future power demand (Dioha et al., 2025). Distributed solar PV installed capacity is unlikely to reach 17 million MW, but if current grid emissions remained constant while capacity increased, GHG emission reductions would be approximately 11 Gt CO₂‑eq/yr (11 Gt CO₂‑eq/yr, 20-yr basis). This maximum is unrealistic as a forward-looking climate impact because it treats grid carbon intensity as permanently fixed at 2023 levels and ignores future decarbonization and corresponding decreases in marginal avoided emissions.

Extreme Weather Events

Rooftop PV systems and mini-grids have the potential to supply electricity when the grid is unstable, improving resilience during or after extreme weather events (Galvan et al., 2020; NREL, 2014).

Income and Work

Solar PV can have a positive effect on the economy because it accounts for 44% of renewable energy jobs globally and is the fastest-growing sector of renewable energy employment (IRENA, 2024). In the United States as of 2021, solar PV employed about 250,000 full-time workers, mainly in the installation, project development, and manufacturing sectors (Gadzanku et al., 2023). The National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) projected that about 509,000–757,000 jobs for both utility- and distributed-scale solar PV will be added by 2030 in the United States (Truitt et al., 2022).

Factors such as local policies that allow for net metering, tax credits, weather, and the price of electricity can determine individual cost benefits and payback periods of distributed solar (Sexton et al., 2018; Vaishnav et al., 2017). After the initial investment, consumers see savings in their monthly electricity bills (NREL, 2018).

Distributed solar PV can provide access to electricity in rural areas of low- and middle-income countries (Kumar et al., 2019). Enhanced access to electricity in these countries can foster economic development of agricultural communities and increase farmer incomes (Candelise et al., 2021; Saha, 2025).

Food Security

Improved electricity access through distributed solar PV can also enhance food production and ensure resilience of agricultural systems in low- and middle-income countries (Ukoba et al., 2024). Improved electricity access strengthens food security by providing refrigeration for perishable food, ensuring higher food quality, and reducing food loss (Candelise et al., 2021; Ukoba et al., 2024).

Energy Availability

Distributed solar PV can provide electricity to households and communities where expanding grid electricity would prove too expensive or physically inaccessible (Kannan & Vakeesan, 2016; Kumar et al., 2019; Maka & Alabid, 2022). Using distributed mini-grids as a source of electricity is especially applicable to low- and middle-income countries with abundant solar resources (Maka & Alabid, 2022). For example, distributed rooftop solar has been an important source of electricity access in Bangladesh, where rooftop PV systems provide electricity to about 12% of the population (Kumar et al., 2019).

Health

Improvements in air quality offer health benefits from reduced air pollution exposure, including reduced premature mortality. The magnitude and distribution of these benefits depend on the local electricity grid mix, the fuels used to generate electricity, and atmospheric conditions that determine how far pollutants travel from emission sources (Buonocore et al., 2019). Regions with a higher proportion of coal-powered electricity generation will often see more health benefits (Buonocore et al., 2019). These health benefits often translate into cost savings associated with reductions in hospital admissions, improved respiratory and cardiovascular conditions, and work and school days that might have otherwise been missed due to illness (Millstein et al., 2017; Wiser et al., 2016). A study of the health benefits of distributed solar PV in eastern China found that reductions in air pollution were linked to a 1.2% decrease in air pollution–related premature mortality (Yang et al., 2018). Distributed solar PV can provide electricity to power electric cookstoves, which can reduce morbidities linked to poor indoor air quality (Jhunjhunwala & Kaur, 2018).

Increasing energy availability through distributed solar PV has important implications for health-care delivery in rural communities in low- and middle-income countries. By providing electricity access to health clinics located in hard-to-reach areas, mini-grid or rooftop PV systems can improve health services (Maka & Alabid, 2022; Soto et al., 2022; Ukoba et al., 2024). Electricity is essential for health-care services such as lighting during procedures, refrigeration of vaccines, sterilization of devices, and medical imaging, which can impact infection rates, neonatal mortality, and surgical outcomes (Soto et al., 2022). PV systems can deliver stable electricity to health clinics in low- and middle-income countries, which often experience power outages due to grid instability or natural disasters (Soto et al., 2022). 

Air Quality

Solar PV reduces air pollutants released from fossil-fuel energy generation, thereby avoiding the emission of pollutants such as nitrogen oxides, sulfur dioxide, and PM2.5 associated with burning coal and natural gas (Abel et al., 2018; Millstein et al., 2024; Millstein et al., 2017; Wiser et al., 2016). The amount and type of air pollutants avoided will vary regionally depending on the fossil fuel type that PV displaces (Gallagher & Holloway, 2020). For example, since coal has different emissions than gas, regions with higher levels of coal-powered electricity will experience different air quality benefits than regions with more gas-powered electricity (Millstein et al., 2017). Pollutants can be transported for long distances depending on meteorological conditions, so air pollution benefits can be widespread (Millstein et al., 2024).

Other

One limitation is our assumption that each additional MWh from distributed solar PV displaces an equivalent MWh from the grid. In practice, without net metering or export compensation, generation from distributed systems may not be fully recognized or integrated into the grid – meaning those MWh might not contribute to net electricity flows or emissions displacement. In such cases, any solar output not exported to the grid cannot contribute to grid-level emissions benefits. Owners of distributed solar PV systems are eligible to claim renewable energy certificates (RECs), but if they don’t do so, their utility may instead claim the RECs on their behalf without reducing emissions from their electricity generation. While RECs are used most widely in the United States, this additionality concern could impact any international energy market that also has tradable renewable energy certificates (NREL, 2015). 

Our definition of distributed solar PV includes both rooftop systems and mini-grids, many of which are coupled with battery storage. However, our aggregated analysis does not fully differentiate between these diverse configurations, nor does it account for their varying operational patterns, grid interactions, or backup roles. These differences are important but difficult to capture within the scope of this analysis. Consequently, the results presented should be interpreted as a high-level approximation rather than a detailed assessment of all distributed solar PV system types.

Distributed solar PV implementation comes with several limitations and uncertainties. One concern is whether new installations meaningfully reduce emissions. In regions where the electricity grid is already low-carbon or underused, adding distributed solar may have limited climate impact.

The long-term impact of distributed solar also depends on system reliability, maintenance, and policy stability. Poorly maintained systems may underperform and sudden policy changes – such as the removal of net metering or the elimination of tax credits – can reduce uptake (Gautier & Jacqmin, 2020; Leite et al., 2024; Venkatachalam et al., 2025). In many low-income regions specifically, high up-front costs, limited access to financing, and insufficient technical capacity can hinder large-scale adoption (Ukoba et al., 2024). Even when demand exists in these regions, supply chain limitations, lack of skilled labor, and inconsistent regulatory frameworks may slow progress.

Technical challenges also arise with increasing deployment. Variability in distributed solar PV generation can lead to voltage instability in distribution networks (Cook et al., 2018; Impram et al., 2020; Tamimi et al., 2013), especially when systems are not paired with smart inverters or batteries. Although emissions from manufacturing and disposal of solar PV panels are relatively lower than those from fossil fuel power, they are not zero. Another technical caveat is the growing concern of e-waste, particularly for off-grid and rural PV deployments. A recent prospective material flow analysis across 15 West African countries estimates that cumulative PV waste could reach 2.3 to 7.8 Mt by 2050, with about 70% originating from off-grid systems (Dong et al., 2025).

A significant risk of implementing distributed solar PV involves changes or instability in policy, especially pertaining to compensation schemes such as net metering and feed‑in tariffs. The economic viability of rooftop solar systems often hinges on favorable tariff or compensation rules; when these policies are reduced or withdrawn, investment returns drop markedly. For example, a 2018 report from IEA‑PVPS shows that many emerging economies have laws enabling net metering, but suffer from delays in implementation or weak compensation levels, which limit residential uptake of rooftop PV systems under self‑consumption policies (Roux & Shanker, 2018).

Another risk is the structure of electricity rates and fixed charges. A study of the impact of fixed charges on the viability of self‑consumption found that high fixed or volumetric charges in retail tariffs can dramatically reduce the financial benefit of self‑consumed PV generation, particularly when surplus PV electricity exported to the grid receives little or no compensation (Solano et al., 2018). These risks combine to lower the real output and emissions reduction potential of distributed PV. When policies incentivize self-consumption rather than exporting electricity to the grid, a greater proportion of the PV-generated electricity is used; however, policies that reduce the financial benefit of PV generation can stymie adoption.

Implementing distributed solar PV involves several trade-offs. Embodied emissions from module manufacturing, transport, installation, and decommissioning are estimated at 10–36 g CO₂‑eq /kWh or approximately 2–8% of typical grid electricity emissions (~530 g CO₂‑eq /kWh), which implies over 90% net savings per kWh generated (Schlömer et al., 2014; Smith et al., 2024). Manufacturing using coal-intensive grids increases embodied emissions, highlighting the necessity of decarbonizing supply chains (Gan et al., 2023; Pehl et al., 2017). These emissions could reduce the net climate benefit, especially when displacing grid electricity from other renewables. 

The temporal variability of solar energy also creates trade-offs. When demand peaks in evening hours, non-solar energy sources ramp up generation, which could lead to increases in marginal emissions (Gagnon & O’Shaughnessy, 2024). In regions with high solar deployment, increased adoption of distributed solar PV could displace utility-scale solar generation, since both operate diurnally, resulting in no net reduction in grid emissions (Bistline & Watten, 2025). However, adoption of distributed solar can be very beneficial in low- and middle-income countries, as well as in places where utility-scale projects face interconnection constraints, permitting issues, or other challenges that limit adoption (Zhang et al., 2025). 

Another trade-off arises when limited rooftop space is used for PV infrastructure instead of alternative uses, such as cool or green roofs, or cooling/HVAC systems, which could offer thermal insulation or carbon sequestration benefits (Cubi et al., 2016; Kazemian & Xiang, 2025). 

Reinforcing

Increased availability of renewable energy from distributed solar PV helps reduce emissions from the electricity grid as a whole. Reduced emissions from the electricity grid leads to lower downstream emissions for solutions that rely on electricity use from the grid. Deploying distributed solar PV also supports increased integration of offshore and onshore wind turbines by diversifying the renewable energy mix, and can alleviate reliability challenges associated with variability in wind alone. Increasing deployment of variable renewable sources like solar PV can also drive procurement of firm baseload power in the form of geothermal and hydropower sources.

Electrification of transportation will be more beneficial in reducing global emissions if the underlying electricity generation mix includes a higher proportion of non-emitting power sources. 

Competing

Distributed solar PV can compete with utility-scale solar PV, agrivoltaics, and wind energy for policy attention, subsidies, and grid access. Additionally, when many distributed solar PV systems are installed, they generate power during the day when the sun is shining. This can lower electricity prices at those times because solar power is cheap to produce. As a result, utility-scale solar PV and agrivoltaic power plants can earn less money from selling electricity.

Level of consensus: High

The scientific consensus surrounding distributed solar PV is strong in support of its emissions reduction potential, cost declines, and grid benefits, although nuances and regional gaps persist. Many studies have documented adoption drivers, grid impacts, performance constraints, and social equity issues, together forming a robust evidence base.

Distributed solar PV not only reduces emissions but also enhances local grid resilience, with one study demonstrating reductions in peak load and frequency interruptions (Ovaere et al., 2020). However, careful grid integration planning, smart inverter controls, and grid upgrades are required to avoid adverse effects because rooftop PV affects voltage quality, reverse power flow, frequency stability, and protection systems (Alboaouh & Mohagheghi, 2020). High penetration of rooftop PV can also lead to voltage issues and power disruptions, create protection coordination issues, and strain regional grid elements (Tran et al., 2023; Uzum et al., 2021). 

Broad solar adoption, including household-level PV, depends on many factors, including key determinants such as affordability, policy support, infrastructure, and social norms. This is especially true in rapidly growing countries (Oliva & Atehortua Santamaria, 2025; Shakeel et al., 2023). In China, distributed solar PV development is now shaped by subsidy phase-out and grid parity dynamics after a decade of evolving policy and finance mechanisms (Zhang & Sirin, 2024). However, regardless of the regional policy landscape, distributed rooftop systems face real-world performance losses due to shading, panel tilt, temperature, and maintenance constraints (Venkatachalam et al., 2025).

The literature strongly supports the notion that distributed solar PV is an effective and scalable mitigation option that can reduce emissions, improve grid reliability, and democratize energy access. There is high consensus on its value, especially when deployed with supportive policy, proper engineering, and system integration. However, unresolved issues remain around cost dynamics of non-hardware components, performance in fragile grids, and equity of deployment. For instance, studies on environmental justice point to lower PV uptake in disadvantaged communities despite high solar potential (Lukanov & Krieger, 2019).

The results discussed in our analysis draw on 10 reviews/meta-analyses, 44 research articles, and 31 institutional reports, covering evidence from different parts of the world, primarily from North America, Europe, and Asia. Many low-income and off-grid regions remain underrepresented, limiting generalizability. Further empirical research in sub-Saharan Africa and Latin America is needed to understand distributed PV’s performance, policy interactions, and grid impacts in diverse contexts.

Take Action

Looking to get involved? Below are some key actions for this solution that can get you started, arranged according to different roles you may play in your professional or personal life.

These actions are meant to be starting points for involvement and are not intended to be prescriptive or necessarily suggest they are the most important or impactful actions to take. We encourage you to explore and get creative!

Lawmakers and Policymakers

  • Set ambitious long-term renewable energy goals and incorporate them into national climate plans and multilateral agreements; design national electrification guidelines for technicians to enable renewable energy goals.
  • Ensure regulatory frameworks around solar are strong and enforced, while also being accessible and timely; coordinate solar power policies horizontally (e.g., across agencies) and vertically (e.g., across subnational, national, and international efforts); seek to align social and environmental safeguards and streamline permitting processes.
  • Streamline regulations such as permitting for renewable energy projects, including both distributed solar and mini-grids; standardize documents for regular engagements, such as templates for power purchase agreements.
  • Provide incentives to consumers, such as subsidies (especially to reduce up-front cost), feed-in tariffs, tax credits, grants, waived grid connection fees, and forgivable or concessional loans; simultaneously allow for grid injections and net-metering schemes; ensure policies and incentives are long term and will remain stable for at least five years; use similar financial incentives for supporting equipment manufacturers, such as those that produce batteries and inverters.
  • Offer incentives such as subsidies and tax credits to manufacturers, operators, developers, and other relevant actors; as the market matures and becomes competitive, gradually reduce these incentives to create long-term market stability.
  • Develop building codes and regulations to incentivize efficiency and self-consumption of PV-generated electricity, especially among new construction; require PV-ready buildings and infrastructure.
  • Implement carbon taxes and remove subsidies from fossil-fuel infrastructure; redirect those funds into renewable energy financing.
  • Implement or strengthen renewable portfolio standards, clean energy standards, or other similar policy mechanisms with carve-outs for distributed solar.
  • Consider using green bonds to finance mini-grids and/or de-risk markets.
  • Invest in and subsidize improvements to grid integration and flexibility, storage, and infrastructure to manage variable generation; deploy smart-grid technologies.
  • Work with industry to diversify supply chains; design incentives and policies to stimulate local or regional production and advance R&D for solar and related equipment such as batteries.
  • Earmark a percentage of financial incentives for low- and middle-income communities and/or countries; if relevant, provide technology transfers and capacity building in low- and middle-income countries.
  • Improve labor- and human-rights laws and standards around solar PV supply chains; enforce standards within industry – particularly for the extraction and use of critical minerals and panel manufacturing.
  • Ensure regulations allow for a variety of development models, such as build-own-operate, public-private partnerships, utility models, energy communities, and cooperatives.
  • Ensure strong quality control requirements for all stages of deployment, including resource extraction, manufacturing, installation, maintenance, and end-of-life service; create certification programs for each stage of the process.
  • Require or encourage manufacturers to provide minimum warranties; establish an independent grievance system to resolve customer disputes and help foster trust in the industry.
  • To the extent possible, regulate and standardize distributed panel components with the aim of facilitating self-installation and ensuring safety. 
  • Work with the private sector to develop workforce training programs; ensure capacity development for all stages of deployment, including end-of-life services; create certifications for the full spectrum of roles.
  • Ensure strong regulations are in place for end-of-life services; enact Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) for manufacturers; work with industry to foster a market for used, refurbished, and recycled panels.
  • Join, create, or participate in public-private partnerships dedicated to de-risking markets, deployment, technology transfers, education, and other relevant areas.
  • Establish one-stop-shop educational programs that use online and in-person methods to educate industry and the public on regulations, benefits of solar, best practices for development, and other relevant information; ensure the material is both appropriate and sufficient for local contexts, paying particularly close attention to language barriers. 

Further information:

Practitioners

  • Conduct careful planning for installation, ensuring that panel tilt, maintenance, and shading are evaluated based on local climatic conditions and are accounted for properly.
  • Conduct regular maintenance and cleaning to enhance cost efficiency and energy savings, especially in arid climates.
  • Utilize geospatial and satellite data to gather information on landscape, market dynamics, and initial customer base.
  • When cost-effective, employ building-integrated photovoltaics, net metering/billing, batteries, and smart inverters.
  • Utilize pay-as-you-go, energy-as-a-service, and other financial models that offset high up-front costs for residential and off-grid customers.
  • Take advantage of government incentives such as subsidies, feed-in tariffs, auctions, tax credits, and contracts for difference; as the market matures and becomes competitive, seek to gradually reduce reliance on these incentives to create long-term market stability.
  • Offer periodic site visits and maintenance services; facilitate reselling of PV systems on the secondhand market.
  • Design distributed solar PV and mini-grid systems to be compatible with the main grid, even in areas far from the main grid, so as to allow for future connection. 
  • Consider providing feed-in tariffs or other financial incentives if they are not provided by the government; consider lease-to-own models.
  • Investigate using green bonds to finance public projects and mini-grids, or to de-risk markets.
  • Work with regulators and other industry leaders to standardize distributed panel components with the aim of facilitating self-installation and ensuring safety. 
  • Invest in strengthening grid integration and improving flexibility through expanded energy storage, upgraded infrastructure, and deployment of smart grid technologies to effectively manage variable renewable generation.
  • Reduce soft costs of customer acquisition with prediction models that use machine learning classifiers like XGBoost, which are trained on widely available socioeconomic data to identify households likely to adopt PV.
  • When developing mini-grids, work directly with the community as well as nonprofits and relevant businesses (such as appliance retailers) to help educate the community on the mini-grid’s capabilities and how to choose suitable appliances.
  • Work with the public sector to diversify supply chains; take advantage of incentives and policies that stimulate local or regional production and advance R&D.
  • Ensure supply chains comply with international labor and human rights laws and standards, particularly for the extraction of critical minerals, and panel manufacturing.
  • Seek to decarbonize the full life cycle – including supply chains, production, installation, recycling, and disposal – as much as possible.
  • Ensure strong quality control for all stages of deployment, including resource extraction, manufacturing, installation, maintenance, and end-of-life service.
  • Work with the public sector and private organizations to develop workforce training programs; ensure capacity development for all stages of deployment, including end-of-life services.
  • Adhere to regulations regarding end-of-life servicing; adopt extended producer responsibility and high-integrity end-of-life servicing standards if no policy framework exists.
  • Invest directly into, and help develop, recycling infrastructure for solar panels.
  • Participate in voluntary agreements with government bodies to increase policy support for solar capacity and power generation.
  • Stay abreast of, and engage with, changing policies, regulations, zoning laws, tax incentives, and related developments to help remove commercial barriers.
  • Join, create, or participate in public-private partnerships dedicated to deployment, technology transfers, education, de-risking markets, and other relevant areas.

Further information:

Business Leaders

  • Set ambitious long-term renewable energy goals and incorporate them into corporate net-zero strategies.
  • Install distributed solar panels when possible, focusing on available rooftops and parking lots.
  • Support long-term, stable contracts (e.g., Purchase Power Agreements) that de-risk investment in solar technologies and incentivize local supply chain development.
  • Take advantage of government incentives such as tax credits, if possible; seek to gradually reduce reliance on these incentives to create long-term market stability.
  • Invest in companies that produce, deploy, or provide end-of-life servicing for solar panels; seek to diversify and localize supply chains.
  • Invest in R&D and related technology, such as batteries.
  • Support workforce development programs, offer employee scholarships, and/or sponsor training for careers in solar power; ensure capacity development for all stages of deployment, including end-of-life services.
  • Offer pro bono business advice or general support for community solar projects, such as community-shared and cooperative business models.
  • Join, create, or participate in public-private partnerships dedicated to deployment, technology transfers, education, de-risking markets, and other relevant areas.

Further information:

Nonprofit Leaders

  • Install distributed solar panels when possible, focusing on available rooftops and parking lots.
  • Advocate for ambitious long-term national goals on solar and renewable energy; advocate to incorporate them into national climate plans and multilateral agreements; request national electrification guidelines for technicians.
  • Operate or help with equipment testing and certification systems, market information disclosures, and onsite supervision.
  • Conduct open-access research to improve the performance of solar PVs, forecasting, and related technologies.
  • Work with industry and government officials to help develop regulations and standards for distributed panel components, with the aim of facilitating self-installation and ensuring safety. 
  • Advocate for strong regulatory frameworks that are also accessible and timely; recommend coordinated solar power policies, both horizontally (e.g., across agencies) and vertically (e.g., across subnational, national, and international efforts); help align social and environmental safeguards and a streamlined permitting processes.
  • Call for government incentives for consumers such as subsidies (especially to reduce up-front cost), feed-in tariffs, tax credits, grants, waived grid connection fees, and forgivable or concessional loans; help ensure regulations allow for grid injections and net-metering schemes; advocate for long-term policies and incentives that will remain stable for at least five years; call for similar financial incentives for supporting equipment manufacturers, such as those that produce batteries and inverters.
  • Urge governments to provide incentives – such as subsidies, feed-in tariffs, auctions, tax credits, and contracts for difference – to manufacturers, operators, developers, and other relevant actors; recommend gradual reductions of these incentives to create long-term market stability.
  • Campaign for public investments in improvements to grid integration and flexibility, storage, and infrastructure to manage variable generation.
  • Call for a percentage of public financing to be earmarked for low- and middle-income communities and/or countries.
  • Help improve enforcement of labor and human rights laws and standards around solar PV supply chains – particularly for the extraction and use of critical minerals.
  • Help create or support community solar projects using a variety of models, such as build-own-operate, public-private partnerships, utility models, energy communities, and cooperatives.
  • Create resources and/or standards to improve quality control for all stages of deployment, including resource extraction, manufacturing, installation, maintenance, and end-of-life service; create and/or administer certification programs for each stage of the process.
  • Work with the public and private sectors to develop workforce training programs; ensure capacity development for all stages of deployment, including end-of-life services.
  • Urge governments and industry to adopt strong regulations for end-of-life services; call for extended producer responsibility; work with industry to foster a market for used, refurbished, or recycled panels.
  • Advocate for carbon taxes and the removal of subsidies from fossil-fuel infrastructure; recommend those funds be redirected into renewable energy.
  • Join, create, or participate in public-private partnerships dedicated to deployment, technology transfers, education, de-risking markets, and other relevant areas.
  • Establish one-stop-shop educational programs that use online and in-person methods to educate industry and the public on regulations, benefits of solar, best practices for development, and other relevant information; ensure the material is sufficient and appropriate for local contexts, paying particularly close attention to language barriers. 

Further information:

Investors

  • Offer low-interest loans and concessional financing for manufacturers, customers, developers, operators, and recyclers.
  • Invest directly in the development of mini-grid projects.
  • Invest in companies that produce, deploy, or provide end-of-life servicing for solar panels; seek to diversify and localize supply chains.
  • Invest in supporting infrastructures such as utility companies, grid development, and access roads.
  • Invest in green bonds and/or explore blended finance structures to mobilize capital for companies developing solar energy or supporting infrastructure.
  • Invest in the recycling infrastructure for solar panels and circular supply chains.
  • Invest in R&D, component technology, and related equipment, such as batteries.
  • Help de-risk energy transitions in low- and middle-income countries by offering low-interest loans, concessional financing, and/or, favorable terms.
  • Align investments with existing public-private partnerships, voluntary agreements, or voluntary guidance that may apply in the location of the investment.

Further information:

Philanthropists and International Aid Agencies

  • Provide catalytic financing for or help develop, distributed solar PV projects and mini-grids.
  • Award grants to enhance grid integration, flexibility, and reliability by supporting innovations in energy storage systems, advanced grid management, transmission infrastructure, and traditional infrastructure (such as access roads) that enable effective integration of solar PV generation.
  • Work with other philanthropies, investors, and implementers to develop standardized reporting mechanisms and create monitoring and evaluation frameworks.
  • Allow for extended program timelines to allow for mini-grid sector development and cost recovery. 
  • Support the development of component technology and related equipment, such as batteries.
  • Award grants to improve recycling infrastructure for solar panels, and build circular supply chains.
  • Facilitate partnerships to share solar technology and best practices between established and emerging markets, promoting energy equity and access.
  • Foster cooperation and technology transfer between low- and middle-income countries with emerging solar sectors.
  • Advocate for ambitious long-term national goals on solar and renewable energy; advocate to incorporate them into national climate plans and multilateral agreements; request national electrification guidelines for technicians.
  • Operate, fund, or support equipment testing and certification systems, and market information disclosures.
  • Conduct open-access research to improve the performance of solar PVs, forecasting, and related technologies.
  • Work with industry and government officials to help develop regulations and standards for distributed panel components, with the aim of facilitating self-installation and ensuring safety. 
  • Advocate for strong regulatory frameworks that are also accessible and timely; recommend coordinated solar power policies, both horizontally (e.g., across agencies) and vertically (e.g., across subnational, national, and international efforts); help align social and environmental safeguards and a streamlined permitting processes.
  • Advocate for a percentage of public financing to be earmarked for low- and middle-income communities and/or countries.
  • Help improve enforcement of labor and human-rights laws and standards around solar PV supply chains – particularly for the extraction and use of critical minerals.
  • Help create or support community solar projects using a variety of models, such as build-own-operate, public-private partnerships, utility models, energy communities, and cooperatives.
  • Create resources and/or standards to improve quality control for all stages of deployment, including resource extraction, manufacturing, installation, maintenance, and end-of-life service; create and/or administer certification programs for each stage of the process.
  • Work with the public and private sectors to develop workforce training programs; ensure capacity development for all stages of deployment, including end-of-life services.
  • Urge governments and industry to adopt strong regulations for end-of-life services; call for extended producer responsibility; work with industry to foster a market for used, refurbished, or recycled panels.
  • Join, create, or participate in public-private partnerships dedicated to deployment, technology transfers, education, de-risking markets, and other relevant areas.
  • Establish one-stop-shop educational programs that use online and in-person methods to educate industry and the public on regulations, benefits of solar, best practices for development, and other relevant information; ensure the material is sufficient and appropriate for local contexts, paying particularly close attention to language barriers.

Further information:

Thought Leaders

  • Install solar panels at home, at the office, and/or at other properties; share your experience and tips with neighbors and the broader community.
  • Advocate for ambitious long-term national goals on solar and renewable energy; advocate to incorporate them into national climate plans and multilateral agreements; request national electrification guidelines for technicians.
  • Operate or help with equipment testing and certification systems, market information disclosures, and onsite supervision.
  • Conduct open-access research to improve the performance of solar PVs, forecasting, and related technologies.
  • Work with industry and government officials to help develop regulations and standards for distributed panel components, with the aim of facilitating self-installation and ensuring safety. 
  • Advocate for strong regulatory frameworks that are also accessible and timely; recommend coordinated solar power policies, both horizontally (e.g., across agencies) and vertically (e.g., across subnational, national, and international efforts); help align social and environmental safeguards and a streamlined permitting processes.
  • Call for government incentives for consumers such as subsidies (especially to reduce up-front cost), feed-in tariffs, tax credits, grants, waived grid connection fees, and forgivable or concessional loans; help ensure regulations allow for grid injections and net-metering schemes; advocate for long-term policies and incentives that will remain stable for at least five years; call for similar financial incentives for supporting equipment manufacturers, such as those that produce batteries and inverters.
  • Urge governments to provide incentives – such as subsidies, feed-in tariffs, auctions, tax credits, and contracts for difference – to manufacturers, operators, developers, and other relevant actors; recommend gradual reductions of these incentives to create long-term market stability.
  • Campaign for public investments in improvements to grid integration and flexibility, storage, and infrastructure to manage variable generation.
  • Advocate for a percentage of public financing to be earmarked for low- and middle-income communities and/or countries.
  • Help improve enforcement of labor and human-rights laws and standards around solar PV supply chains – particularly for the extraction and use of critical minerals.
  • Help create or support community solar projects using a variety of models, such as build-own-operate, public-private partnerships, utility models, energy communities, and cooperatives.
  • Advocate for strong regulations for end-of-life services; advocate for extended producer responsibility; work with industry to foster a market for used, refurbished, or recycled panels.
  • Advocate for carbon taxes and the removal of subsidies from fossil-fuel infrastructure; recommend those funds be redirected into renewable energy.
  • Join, create, or participate in public-private partnerships dedicated to deployment, technology transfers, education, de-risking markets, and other relevant areas.
  • Establish one-stop-shop educational programs that use online and in-person methods to educate industry and the public on regulations, benefits of solar, best practices for development, and other relevant information; ensure the material is sufficient and appropriate for local contexts, paying particularly close attention to language barriers. 

Further information:

Technologists and Researchers

  • Continue advancing the performance of monocrystalline and polycrystalline silicon cells.
  • Improve cooperation between building automation systems and monitoring and control of PV systems.
  • Investigate the ability of PV to assist in frequency regulation and other ancillary services to maintain grid stability as more renewables displace conventional power plants.
  • Develop a platform that provides up-to-date and publicly available data on mini-grid operations, related policies, technologies, standards, and other relevant information.
  • Advance energy-storage systems technologies, such as battery, hydrogen, and gravity-based.
  • Improve manufacturing efficiencies such as larger wafer formats, enhanced cell architectures, and advanced wafer-processing techniques.
  • Advance the use of AI or other technological means for predictive analytics, forecasting, and power system control.
  • Improve recycling infrastructure and scalable technologies to repair, reuse, or recover materials from solar panels.
  • Create more heat-tolerant PV technologies and systems to reduce heat exposure and/or absorption.
  • Create better protection and cleaning systems for PV to preserve functionality during extreme weather, and in extreme environments – especially deserts. 
  • Improve related mining technologies for critical minerals, making the extraction process safer, less disruptive to local communities and ecosystems, and less energy-intensive.
  • Develop ways of eliminating, reducing, reusing, and/or safely disposing of hazardous by-products of PV manufacturing.
  • Research factors that lead to community acceptance and the role of distributed solar in a fair and just energy transition. 

Further information:

Communities, Households, and Individuals

  • Install solar panels at home, at the office, and/or at other properties; share your experience and tips with neighbors and the broader community.
  • If your community is not connected to the main grid, consider developing a local mini-grid.
  • Conduct careful planning for installation, ensuring panel tilt, maintenance, and shading are evaluated based on local climatic conditions and are accounted for properly.
  • Conduct regular maintenance and cleaning to enhance cost efficiency and energy savings, especially in arid climates.
  • Help create or support community solar projects using a variety of models, such as build-own-operate, public-private partnerships, utility models, energy communities, and cooperatives.
  • If available, take advantage of government incentives such as subsidies, tax breaks, and forgivable or concessional loans for development.
  • Call for government incentives for consumers, if necessary, such as subsidies ( especially to reduce up-front cost), feed-in tariffs, tax credits, grants, waived grid connection fees, and forgivable or concessional loans; help ensure regulations allow for grid injections and net-metering schemes; advocate for long-term policies and incentives that will remain stable for at least five years; call for similar financial incentives for supporting equipment manufacturers, such as those that produce batteries and inverters.
  • Advocate for carbon taxes and the removal of subsidies from fossil-fuel infrastructure; recommend those funds be redirected into renewable energy.
  • Join, create, or participate in public-private partnerships dedicated to deployment, technology transfers, education, de-risking markets, and other relevant areas.
  • Participate in public awareness campaigns focused on solar projects; share information with your community and networks.

Further information:

“Take Action” Sources

References

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Alboaouh, K. A., & Mohagheghi, S. (2020). Impact of rooftop photovoltaics on the distribution system. Journal of Renewable Energy, 1, Article 4831434. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1155/2020/4831434

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Gadzanku, S., Kramer, A., & Smith, B. L. (2023). An updated review of the solar PV installation workforce literature (Report No. NREL/TP-7A40-83652). National Renewable Energy Laboratory. Link to source: https://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy23osti/83652.pdf  

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Credits

Lead Fellow

  • Michael Dioha, Ph.D.

Contributors

  • Ruthie Burrows, Ph.D.

  • James Gerber, Ph.D.

  • Daniel Jasper

  • Megan Matthews Ph.D.

  • Alex Sweeney

Internal Reviewers

  • Al-Amin Bugaje, Ph.D.

  • James Gerber, Ph.D.

  • Amanda D. Smith, Ph.D.

Methods and Supporting Data

Methods and Supporting Data

Comments / Questions

  • Greenhouse gas quantity expressed relative to CO₂ with the same warming impact over 100 years, calculated by multiplying emissions by the 100-yr GWP for the emitted gases.

  • Greenhouse gas quantity expressed relative to CO₂ with the same warming impact over 20 years, calculated by multiplying emissions by the 20-yr GWP for the emitted gases.

  • 8th World Congress on Conservation Agriculture

  • Reducing greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere by preventing or reducing emissions.

  • A liquid with a low pH (below 7).

  • The process of increasing acidity.

  • The extent to which emissions reduction or carbon removal is above and beyond what would have occurred without implementing a particular action or solution.

  • An upper limit on solution adoption based on physical or technical constraints, not including economic or policy barriers. This level is unlikely to be reached and will not be exceeded.

  • The quantity and metric to measure implementation for a particular solution that is used as the reference unit for calculations within that solution.

  • A composting method in which organic waste is processed in freestanding piles that can be aerated actively with forced air or passively by internal convection.

  • The interactions of aerodynamic forces and flexible structures, often including the stucture's control system.

  • A process in which microbes break down organic materials in the presence of oxygen. This process converts food and green waste into nutrient-rich compost.

  • Establishment of new forests in areas that did not historically support forests.

  • Farming practices that work to create socially and ecologically sustainable food production.

  • Addition of trees and shrubs to crop or animal farming systems.

  • Artificial intelligence

  • Spread out the cost of an asset over its useful lifetime.

  • A process in which microorganisms break down organic material in the absence of oxygen. Methane and CO₂ are the main byproducts.

  • A crop that live one year or less from planting to harvest; also called annual.

  • aerated static piles

  • Hardware required to support PV modules and arrays, including racking and mounting structures, wires, and other physical components.

  • Electric power delivered at a steady, around-the-clock rate, to cover power demand that exists at all times. Baseload power is typically supplied by high availability, low operating-cost plants, such as nuclear or geothermal.

  • A liquid with a high pH (above 7).

  • black carbon

  • Solar panels that generate electricity from sunlight captured on both sides, increasing energy output by reflecting light from the ground and surroundings.

  • Made from material of biological origin, such as plants, animals, or other organisms.

  • A renewable energy source generated from organic matter from plants and/or algae.

  • An energy source composed primarily of methane and CO₂ that is produced by microorganisms when organic matter decomposes in the absence of oxygen.

  • Carbon stored in biological matter, including soil, plants, fungi, and plant products (e.g., wood, paper, biofuels). This carbon is sequestered from the atmosphere but can be released through decomposition or burning.

  • Living or dead renewable matter from plants or animals, not including organic material transformed into fossil fuels. Peat, in early decay stages, is partially renewable biomass.

  • Biogas refined to the same quality as natural gas. CO₂ and impurities are removed, and the biomethane can be distributed and used in existing natural gas technologies.
     

  • A type of carbon sequestration that captures carbon from CO₂ via photosynthesis and stores it in soils, sediments, and biomass, distinct from sequestration through chemical or industrial pathways.

  • A synthetic organic compound used to make a type of hard, clear plastic for food and drink packaging and many consumer goods.

  • A climate pollutant, also called soot, produced from incomplete combustion of organic matter, either naturally (wildfires) or from human activities (biomass or fossil fuel burning).

  • A secure, decentralized way of digitally tracking transactions that could be used to improve the transparency and efficiency of carbon markets. 

  • Fixed income debt instruments focused on sustainable ocean projects. Blue bonds work in the same manner as traditional bonds and may be issued by corporations, financial institutions, and governments.

  • A global initiative launched by Germany and the IUCN in 2011 to restore 150 Mha of land by 2020 and 350 Mha by 2030.

  • High-latitude (>50°N or >50°S) climate regions characterized by short growing seasons and cold temperatures.

  • Balance-of-system

  • bisphenol A

  • Revenue from carbon credits reserved for payout to land- and rights-holders in the event of a disturbance such as a fire; similar to insurance scheme.

  • The components of a building that physically separate the indoors from the outdoor environment.

  • Businesses involved in the sale and/or distribution of solution-related equipment and technology, and businesses that want to support adoption of the solution.

  • Compound annual growth rate

  • A chemical reaction involving heating a solid to a high temperature; to make cement clinker, limestone is calcined into lime in a process that requires high heat and produces CO₂.

  • The ratio of the actual electricity an energy technology generates over a period of time to the maximum it could have produced if it operated continuously at full capacity.

  • A four-wheeled passenger vehicle.

  • Average number of people traveling in a car per trip.

  • Technologies that collect CO₂ before it enters the atmosphere, preventing emissions at their source. Collected CO₂ can be used onsite or in new products, or stored long term to prevent release.

  • A greenhouse gas that is naturally found in the atmosphere. Its atmospheric concentration has been increasing due to human activities, leading to warming and climate impacts.

  • Total GHG emissions resulting from a particular action, material, technology, or sector.

  • Amount of GHG emissions released per activity or unit of production. 

  • A marketplace where carbon credits are purchased and sold. One carbon credit represents activities that avoid, reduce, or remove one metric ton of GHG emissions.

  • A colorless, odorless gas released during the incomplete combustion of fuels containing carbon. Carbon monoxide can harm health and be fatal at high concentrations.

  • The time it takes for the emissions reduction from a measure to equal the emissions invested in implementing the measure.

  • Activities or technologies that pull CO₂ out of the atmosphere, including enhancing natural carbon sinks and deploying engineered sinks.

  • Long-term storage of carbon in soils, sediment, biomass, oceans, and geologic formations after removal of CO₂ from the atmosphere or CO₂ capture from industrial and power generation processes.

  • The interconnected pool of dissolved inorganic carbon forms in water. Composed of dissolved CO₂, carbonic acid, bicarbonate ions, and carbonate ions.

  • carbon capture and storage

  • carbon capture, utilization, and storage

  • Cooling degree days

  • A binding ingredient in concrete responsible for most of concrete’s life-cycle emissions. Cement is made primarily of clinker mixed with other mineral components.

  • chlorofluorocarbon

  • Processes that use chemical reactions or heat to break down plastic waste into basic molecular components or feedstocks that can then be used to make new plastic products.

  • Process that uses chemical reactions or heat to break down plastic waste into basic molecular components that can be used to make new plastic products.

  • methane

  • A system in which resources, materials, and products are used for as long as possible through reuse, repair, refurbishment, and recycling.

  • Energy sources that have little to no negative environmental or climate impacts during operation relative to fossil fuel–based energy sources.

  • A factor that warms or cools the planet.

  • Gases or particles that have a planet-warming effect when released to the atmosphere. Some climate pollutants also cause other forms of environmental damage.

  • Areas that have natural buffers from local climate change impacts, offering safe havens for species and ecosystems.

  • A binding ingredient in cement responsible for most of the life-cycle emissions from cement and concrete production.

  • A waste management process where waste is made into the same original product, preserving quality and value so materials can be reused multiple times while keeping resources in continuous use.

  • A system that encompasses both forward supply chains (from producer to consumer) and reverse logistics for reuse, recycling, or proper disposal.

  • Neighbors, volunteer organizations, hobbyists and interest groups, online communities, early adopters, individuals sharing a home, and private citizens seeking to support the solution.

  • A solution that potentially lowers the benefit of another solution through reduced effectiveness, higher costs, reduced or delayed adoption, or diminished global climate impact.

  • The average annual rate at which a value grows over a specified period, assuming profits are reinvested and growth occurs steadily each year.

  • Funding with substantially more generous terms than market loans (typically due to lower interest rates, longer repayment periods, or partial grants) used to support projects with public or development benefits.

  • A farming system that combines reduced tillage, cover crops, and crop rotations.

  • The proportion of water used or applied that is evaporated, transpired, or incorporated into a product and therefore is not returned to the local hydrological system through runoff or leaching.

  • Risk-sharing financial agreements in which two parties (e.g., renewable generator, government) guarantee a fixed price (e.g., electricity price). If market prices fluctuate, one party pays the other the difference.

  • Persistent long, thin clouds that form behind aircraft when water vapor in the exhaust condenses, then freezes into ice crystals at high altitudes. 

  • A measure of the total space cooling demand to maintain an indoor temperature below 24 °C

  • carbon dioxide

  • A  measure standardizing the warming effects of greenhouse gases relative to CO₂. CO₂-eq is calculated as quantity (metric tons) of a particular gas multiplied by its GWP.

  • carbon dioxide equivalent

  • Plant materials left over after a harvest, such as stalks, leaves, and seed husks.

  • A granular material made by crushing broken or waste glass.

  • direct air capture

  • Financial agreements in which government creditors forgive a portion of debt in exchange for specific conservation commitments.

  • The process of cutting greenhouse gas emissions (primarily CO₂) from a particular sector or activity.

  • An industrial process that removes printing ink from used or waste paper fibers, creating clean pulp that can be turned into new paper products.

  • A solution that works slower than gradual solutions and is expected to take longer to reach its full potential.

  • Microbial conversion of nitrate into inert nitrogen gas under low-oxygen conditions, which produces the greenhouse gas nitrous oxide as an intermediate compound.

  • Electronic document that verifies whether a product has been manufactured according to environmental and social standards and/or material origins, environmental impact, and disposal recommendations.

  • Electronic documents that verify whether or not a product has been manufactured according to environmental and social standards and/or material origins, environmental impact, and disposal recommendations.

  • Greenhouse gas emissions produced as a direct result of the use of a technology or practice.

  • Electric power that can be increased, decreased, or turned on/off to match real-time fluctuations in grid conditions. Typically supplied by fast-responding plants such as natural gas, hydroelectric, or battery storage.

  • The inorganic forms of carbon dissolved in seawater. Composed of dissolved CO₂, carbonic acid, bicarbonate ions, and carbonate ions.

  • A system of underground distribution pipes that supply heat from centralized sources to a large number of buildings for space and water heating or industrial use.

  • A window consisting of two glass panes separated by a sealed gap and typically filled with air or an inert gas to improve the heat flow resistance.

  • A waste management system that transforms waste into different products of lower quality and value, making materials harder to recycle again and limiting reuse.

  • Flexible benchmarks derived from independent, publicly available, frequently updated data sets.

  • European Energy Agency

  • Ability of a solution to reduce emissions or remove carbon, expressed in CO₂-eq per installed adoption unit. Effectiveness is quantified per year when the adoption unit is cumulative over time.

  • Enhanced geothermal system

  • Exajoule (one quintillion joules)

  • A process that uses electric current to drive a reaction, such as using electricity to split water molecules into hydrogen and oxygen.

  • Produced by electrolysis.

  • Greenhouse gas emissions accrued over the lifetime of a material or product, including as it is produced, transported, used, and disposed of.

  • Solutions that work faster than gradual solutions, front-loading their impact in the near term.

  • Methane produced by microbes in the digestive tracts of ruminant livestock, such as cattle, sheep and goats.

  • The unintended capture of organisms in intake flows.

  • Environmental Protection Agency

  • Extended Producer Responsibility

  • expanded polystyrene

  • Environmental Research & Education Foundation

  • environmental, social, and governance

  • exchange-traded fund

  • A process triggered by an overabundance of nutrients in water, particularly nitrogen and phosphorus, that stimulates excessive plant and algae growth and can harm aquatic organisms.

  • Electric vehicle

  • The movement of water from the earth’s surface to the atmosphere directly from land or water surfaces (evaporation) and through plant tissues (transpiration).

     

  • The scientific literature that supports our assessment of a solution's effectiveness.

  • A policy framework that assigns responsibility to producers for the end-of-life servicing of their products.

  • A group of human-made molecules that contain fluorine atoms. They are potent greenhouse gases with GWPs that can be hundreds to thousands times higher than CO₂.

  • Food, agriculture, land, and ocean

  • Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations

  • feed conversion ratio

  • The efficiency with which an animal converts feed into increased body mass, measured as the ratio of the weight of the feed given to weight gain. Lower FCR means less feed for the same growth.

  • A policy mechanism that incentivizes renewables through contracts that guarantee a set price for the electricity generated.

  • Raw material inputs for manufacturing, processing, and managing waste.

  • Containing or consisting of iron.

  • A measure of fishing activity over time and area, commonly measured by number of trips, vessel time, or gear deployed.

  • A solar PV system with panels mounted at a constant angle.

  • Glass is manufactured by floating molten glass on a molten tin bath, producing a smooth, flat product with high optical clarity, often used for window applications.

  • food loss and waste

  • Food discarded during pre-consumer supply chain stages, including production, harvest, and processing.

  • Food discarded during pre-consumer supply chain stages, including production, harvest, and processing, along with food discarded wt the retail and consumer stages of the supply chain.

  • Food discarded at the retail and consumer stages of the supply chain.

  • Combustible materials found in Earth's crust that can be burned for energy, including oil, natural gas, and coal. They are formed from decayed organisms through prehistoric geological processes.

  • Free, prior, and informed consent

  • A principled process of working with Indigenous communities that requires consent from Indigenous peoples for any decision, action, or activity that impacts their community and/or lands.

  • Unintentional leaks of gases or vapor into the atmosphere.

  • A group of countries representing the majority of the world's population, trade, and GDP. There are 19 member countries plus the European Union and the African Union

  • Gas collection and control system

  • A design or approach to policy, programs, or activities that addresses the different situations, roles, needs, and interests of women, men, girls, and boys.

  • Manipulating the environment to influence the quantities or impact of climate pollutants in the atmosphere.

  • greenhouse gas

  • Global horizontal irradiance

  • gigajoule or billion joules

  • The glass layers or panes in a window.

  • The intensity of all solar radiant energy on a horizontal surface over a specific time frame, which limits PV power output. Measured as energy per area per year (kWh/m2/yr).

  • A measure of how effectively a gas traps heat in the atmosphere relative to CO₂. GWP converts greenhouse gases into CO₂-eq emissions based on their 20- or 100-year impacts.

  • A solution that has a steady impact on the atmosphere. Effectiveness is expected to be constant over time rather than having a higher impact in the near or long term.

  • A system that uses the slope of a field and furrows, borders, or flooding to apply water without pumping.

  • Hydrogen produced from natural gas, most commonly by combining heated steam with methane. Producing grey hydrogen emits CO₂ and leaks methane. Most hydrogen made today is grey.

  • A fixed income debt instrument focused on sustainable projects. Green bonds work in the same manner as traditional bonds and may be issued by corporations, financial institutions, and governments.

  • A fixed income debt instrument focused on sustainable projects. They work in the same manner as traditional bonds and may be issued by corporations, financial institutions, and governments.

  • Hydrogen gas made through electrolysis using electricity produced onsite using renewable energy sources.

  • The practice of charging more for renewable energy than for conventional energy to cover added costs .

  • Roofs that are designed to be partially or completely covered in vegetation.

  • Biomass discarded during landscaping and gardening.

  • A gas that traps heat in the atmosphere, contributing to climate change.

  • The makeup of electricity generation on a power grid, showing the share contributed by various energy sources (e.g., coal, natural gas, nuclear, wind, solar, hydro) relative to total electricity production.

  • A process by which GHGs dissolved in groundwater are released to the atmosphere when the groundwater is extracted from the aquifer.

  • metric gigatons or billion metric tons

  • global warming potential

  • A low-carbon steel-making technology that uses hydrogen from water, direct reduction of iron, and electric arc furnaces. 

  • hectare

  • household air pollution

  • A sector or process that is exceptionally challenging to decarbonize, often because of a lack of mature technology options.  

  • hydrochlorofluorocarbon

  • Number of years a person is expected to live without disability or other limitations that restrict basic functioning and activity.

  • A measure of the total space heating demand to maintain an indoor temperature above 18 °C

  • A unit of land area comprising 10,000 square meters, roughly equal to 2.5 acres.

  • Hybrid electric car

  • hydrofluorocarbon

  • hydrofluoroolefin

  • hydrofluoroolefin

  • high-income countries

  • Metal waste that is produced at a mill or foundry during the metal production process and recycled internally.

  • Particles and gases released from use of polluting fuels and technologies such as biomass cookstoves that cause poor air quality in and around the home.

  • heating, ventilation, air conditioning, and refrigeration

  • Organic compounds that contain hydrogen and carbon.

  • Human-made F-gases that contain hydrogen, fluorine, and carbon. They typically have short atmospheric lifetimes and GWPs hundreds or thousands times higher than CO₂. 

  • Human-made F-gases that contain hydrogen, fluorine, and carbon, with at least one double bond. They have low GWPs and can be climate-friendly alternatives to HFC refrigerants.

  • Hydrogen is a gas that can be a fuel, feedstock, or means of storing energy. It generates water instead of GHG when burned, but the process of producing it can emit high levels of GHGs. 

  • A recycling process that separates fibers from contaminants for reuse. Paper or cardboard is mixed with water to break down fibrous materials into pulp.

  • internal combustion engine

  • International Energy Agency

  • Aerobic decomposition of organic waste in a sealed container or bin/bay system. 

  • Greenhouse gas emissions produced as a result of a technology or practice but not directly from its use.

  • A solid block of purified silicon formed by melting and crystallizing raw silicon; it serves as the base material for slicing into wafers used in solar cells.

  • Device used to power vehicles by the intake, compression, combustion, and exhaust of fuel that drives moving parts.

  • The annual discount rate that balances net cash flows for a project over time. Also called IRR, internal rate of return is used to estimate profitability of potential investments.

  • Individuals or institutions willing to lend money in search of a return on their investment.

  • Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

  • Indigenous peoples’ land

  • Integrated pest management.

  • internal rate of return

  • The timing and amount of irrigation water applied.

  • International Union for Conservation of Nature

  • The most comprehensive global list of species threatened with extinction, maintained by the International Union for Conservation of Nature.

  • International agreement adopted in 2016 to phase down the use of high-GWP HFC F-gases over the time frame 2019–2047.

  • A measure of energy equivalent to the energy delivered by 1,000 watts of power over one hour.

  • kiloton or one thousand metric tons

  • kilowatt-hour

  • The intentional or unintentional act of property use crossing ownership boundaries without permission.

  • A land-holding system, e.g. ownership, leasing, or renting. Secure land tenure means farmers or other land users will maintain access to and use of the land in future years.

  • Gases, mainly methane and CO₂, created by the decomposition of organic matter in the absence of oxygen.

  • levelized cost of electricity

  • leak detection and repair

  • Regular monitoring for fugitive methane leaks throughout oil and gas, coal, and landfill sector infrastructure and the modification or replacement of leaking equipment.

  • Relocation of emissions-causing activities outside of a mitigation project area rather than a true reduction in emissions.

  • The rate at which solution costs decrease as adoption increases, based on production efficiencies, technological improvements, or other factors.

  • Percent decrease in costs per doubling of adoption.

  • A metric describing the expected break-even cost of generating electricity per megawatt-hour ($/MWh), combining costs related to capital, operation, and fuel (if used) and dividing by total output over the generator's lifetime.

  • landfill gas

  • Greenhouse gas emissions from the sourcing, production, use, and disposal of a technology or practice.

  • A process that converts biomass, plastics, or other solid wastes into liquid fuel or chemicals.

  • The total weight of an organism before any meat processing.

  • low- and middle-income countries

  • liquefied petroleum gas

  • land use change

  • A measure of the amount of light produced by a light source per energy input.

  • live weight

  • Mobility as a Service

  • marginal abatement cost curve

  • Livestock grazing practices that strategically manage livestock density, grazing intensity, and timing. Also called improved grazing, these practices have environmental, soil health, and climate benefits, including enhanced soil carbon sequestration.

  • Intertidal coastal wetlands with salt-tolerant trees and shrubs found in tropical and subtropical regions.

  • A tool to measure and compare the financial cost and abatement benefit of individual actions based on the initial and operating costs, revenue, and emission reduction potential.

  • Periods of unusually warm ocean temperatures that typically last from days to months and can affect large areas of the ocean.

  • Defined by the International Union for Conservation of Nature as: "A clearly defined geographical space, recognised, dedicated and managed, through legal or other effective means, to achieve the long-term conservation of nature with associated ecosystem services and cultural values." References to PAs here also include other effective area-based conservation measures defined by the IUCN. 

  • The transfer of economic activity or environmental impact from one area to another as a result of conservation activities, often having the effect of reducing or offsetting intended benefits.

  • The transfer of economic activity or environmental impact from one location to another as a result of conservation activities, often having the effect of reducing or offsetting intended benefits.

  • A facility that receives recyclable waste from residential, commercial, and industrial sources; separates, processes, and prepares them; and then sells them to manufacturers for reuse in new products.

  • A measure of energy equivalent to the energy delivered by one million watts of power over one hour.

  • A greenhouse gas with a short lifetime and high GWP that can be produced through a variety of mechanisms including the breakdown of organic matter.

  • A measure of mass equivalent to 1,000 kilograms (~2,200 lbs).

  • million hectares

  • The natural process by which microbes convert matter to energy, often producing CO₂ or other GHGs as a byproduct.

  • Soils mostly composed of inorganic materials formed through the breakdown of rocks. Most soils are mineral soils, and they generally have less than 20% organic matter by weight.

  • A localized electricity system that independently generates and distributes power. Typically serving limited geographic areas, mini-grids can operate in isolation or interconnected with the main grid.

  • Reduce adverse impact of

  • A reduction in adverse impact

  • megajoule or one million joules

  • Digital platform that integrates transport modes such as public transit, carpooling, and bike sharing into a single service, allowing users to plan, book, and pay for multimodal trips through one application.

  • Percent of trips made by different passenger and freight transportation modes.

  • A condition of being diseased, unhealthy, or injured.

  • Marine Protected Area

  • materials recovery facility

  • Municipal solid waste

  • megaton or million metric tons

  • Materials discarded from residential and commercial sectors, including organic waste, glass, metals, plastics, paper, and cardboard.

  • megawatt

  • Megawatt-hour

  • micro wind turbine

  • square meter kelvins per watt (a measure of thermal resistance, also called R-value)

  • nitrous oxide

  • The enclosed housing at the top of a wind turbine tower that contains the main mechanical and electrical components of the turbine.

  • A commitment from a country to reduce national emissions and/or sequester carbon in alignment with global climate goals under the Paris Agreement, including plans for adapting to climate impacts.

  • A gaseous form of hydrocarbons consisting mainly of methane.

  • Chemicals found in nature that are used for cooling and heating, such as CO₂, ammonia, and some hydrocarbons. They have low GWPs and are ozone friendly, making them climate-friendly refrigerants.

  • The rate of primary production for photosynthetic organisms, excluding the carbon they respire for their own metabolic processes.

  • The rate at which photosynthetic organisms convert carbon dioxide into organic matter, minus the carbon they respire for their own metabolic processes.

  • Microbial conversion of ammonia or ammonium to nitrite and then to nitrate under aerobic conditions.

  • A group of air pollutant molecules composed of nitrogen and oxygen, including NO and NO₂.

  • A greenhouse gas produced during fossil fuel combustion and agricultural and industrial processes. N₂O is hundreds of times more potent than CO₂ at trapping atmospheric heat, and it depletes stratospheric ozone.

  • Metals or alloys that do not contain significant amounts of iron.

  • Social welfare organizations, civic leagues, social clubs, labor organizations, business associations, and other not-for-profit organizations.

  • A material or energy source that relies on resources that are finite or not naturally replenished at the rate of consumption, including fossil fuels like coal, oil, and natural gas.

  • nitrogen oxides

  • Net primary production

  • nitrous oxide

  • The process of increasing the acidity of seawater, primarily caused by absorption of CO₂ from the atmosphere.

  • Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development

  • An agreement between a seller who will produce future goods and a purchaser who commits to buying them, often used as project financing for producers prior to manufacturing.

  • Waste made of plant or animal matter, including food waste and green waste.

  • Systems to connect buyers with a network of smallholder farmers to stabilize supply and demand (sometimes called "contract farming.”

  • organic waste

  • Protected area

  • Protected Area

  • A certification that verifies a metric ton of packaging waste has been recovered and is being exported for reprocessing.

  • A certification that verifies a metric ton of packaging waste has been recovered and reprocessed.

  • Productive use of wet or rewetted peatlands that does not disturb the peat layer, such as for hunting, gathering, and growing wetland-adapted crops for food, fiber, and energy.

  • A legally protected area that lacks effective enforcement or management, resulting in minimal to no conservation benefit.

  • Airborne particles composed of solids and liquids.

  • A measure of transporting one passenger over a distance of one kilometer.

  • Incentive payments to landowners or managers to conserve natural resources and promote healthy ecological functions or ecosystem services.

  • Small, hardened pieces of plastic made from cooled resin that can be melted to make new plastic products.

  • The longevity of any greenhouse gas emission reductions or removals. Solution impacts are considered permanent if the risk of reversing the positive climate impacts is low within 100 years.

  • Packaging waste export recovery note

  • High-efficiency solar cells with a traditional silicon base and a thin-film perovskite layer on top that allows the combined cell to capture more energy without significantly increasing its size.

  • Advanced solar cells combining perovskite and silicon layers to capture more of the solar spectrum, achieving higher efficiency than conventional silicon cells.

  • Payments for ecosystem services

  • A mixture of hydrocarbons, small amounts of other organic compounds, and trace amounts of metals used to produce products such as fuels or plastics.

  • Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances, a class of synthetic chemicals that do not degrade easily in the environment. They can pollute the environment and can have negative impacts on human health.

  • A measure of the acidity (pH<7) or alkalinity (pH>7) of a solution.

  • Reduce the use of a material or practice over time.

  • Eliminate the use of a material or practice over time.

  • Plug-in hybrid electric car

  • Private, national, or multilateral organizations dedicated to providing aid through in-kind or financial donations.

  • An atmospheric reaction among sunlight, VOCs, and nitrogen oxide that leads to ground-level ozone formation. Ground-level ozone, a component of smog, harms human health and the environment.

  • The process by which certain materials, such as those in solar cells, convert sunlight into electricity by releasing electrons.

  • The process by which sunlight is converted into electricity. When light hits certain materials, such as those in solar panels, it mobilizes electrons, creating an electric current.

  • A family of synthetic organic compounds used to make plastics softer, more flexible, and durable. They are added to a wide range of plastics for consumer and industrial uses.

  • polyisocyanurate

  • The adjustment of turbine blade angles around their long axis in which a control system rotates blades slightly forward or backward to regulate wind capture and optimize electricity generation.

  • passenger kilometer

  • particulate matter

  • Particulate matter 2.5 micrometers or less in diameter that can harm human health when inhaled.

  • Elected officials and their staff, bureaucrats, civil servants, regulators, attorneys, and government affairs professionals.

  • System in a vehicle that generates power and delivers it to the wheels. It typically includes an engine and/or motor, transmission, driveshaft, and differential.

  • Purchase Power Agreement.

  • Purchase Power Agreements

  • People who most directly interface with a solution and/or determine whether the solution is used and/or available. 

  • A chemical reaction that creates a solid from a solution.

  • A substance that is the starting material for a chemical reaction that forms a different substance.

  • Extraction of naturally occurring resources from the Earth, including mining, logging, and oil and gas refining. These resources can be used in raw or minimally processed forms to produce materials.

  • The process of converting inorganic matter, including carbon dioxide, into organic matter (biomass), primarily by photosynthetic organisms such as plants and algae.

  • Packaging waste recovery note

  • Defined by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature as "A clearly defined geographical space, recognised, dedicated and managed, through legal or other effective means, to achieve the long-term conservation of nature with associated ecosystem services and cultural values". References to PAs here also include other effective area-based conservation measures defined by the IUCN. 

  • A process that separates and breaks down wood and other raw materials into fibers that form pulp, the base ingredient for making paper products.

  • polyurethane

  • Long-term contract between a company (the buyer) and a renewable energy producer (the seller).

  • Long-term contracts between a company (the buyer) and a renewable energy producer (the seller).

  • photovoltaic

  • Petawatt-hour, equal to 1 billion MWh

  • research and development

  • A situation in which improvements in efficiency or savings lead to consumers increasing consumption, partially or fully offsetting or exceeding the emissions or cost benefits.

  • renewable energy certificate

  • Chemical or mixture used for cooling and heating in refrigeration, air conditioning, and heat pump equipment. Refrigerants absorb and release heat as they move between states under changing pressure.

  • The amount of refrigerant needed for a particular refrigeration, air conditioning, or heat pump system.

  • A group of approaches to farming and ranching that emphasizes enhancing the health of soil by restoring its carbon content and providing other benefits to the farm and surrounding ecosystem.

  • A solution that can increase the beneficial impact of another solution through increased effectiveness, lower costs, improved adoption, enhanced global climate impact, and/or other benefits to people and nature.

  • A material or energy source that relies on naturally occuring and replenishing resources such as plant matter, wind, or sunlight.

  • A market-based instrument that tracks ownership of renewable energy generation.

  • The moldable form of raw plastic material, created by melting down waste or virgin plastics and serving as the building block for creating new plastic goods.

  • The process of moving items from end users (e.g., consumers) back to the sellers or manufacturers to reuse, recycle, or dispose of. This can include transportation, cleaning, sorting, and more.

  • Hiring a vehicle to take a passenger or passengers to a particular destination.

  • U.N. treaties to combat climate change, biodiversity loss, and desertification. They include the U.N. Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), and the U.N. Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD).

  • A class of animals with complex stomachs that can digest grass. Most grazing livestock are ruminants including cows, sheep, and goats along with several other species.

  • sustainable aviation fuel

  • A wetland ecosystem regularly flooded by tides and containing salt-tolerant plants, such as grasses and herbs.

  • Intertidal coastal wetlands with salt-tolerant plants.

  • An ecosystem characterized by low-density tree cover that allows for a grass subcanopy.

  • Very large or small numbers are formatted in scientific notation. A positive exponent multiplies the number by powers of ten; a negative exponent divides the number by powers of ten.

  • Seasonal coefficient of performance

  • Sustainable Development Goals

  • Average units of heat energy released for every unit of electrical energy consumed, used to measure heat pump efficiency.

  • A single pane window (glass and frame) added to an existing single-glazed window, converting the unit into double glazing, with each pane independently operable.

  • A practice in which multiple utility companies own and operate high-voltage power lines, sharing both costs and benefits.

  • A window consisting of one glass pane without any additional insulating layers.

  • Small-scale family farmers and other food producers, often with limited resources, usually in the tropics. The average size of a smallholder farm is two hectares (about five acres).

  • soil organic carbon

  • The process of using direct, real-world observations to verify, validate, and/or improve data and models about social systems, often using in-person observations in the field.

  • Carbon stored in soils, including both organic (from decomposing plants and microbes) and inorganic (from carbonate-containing minerals).

  • Carbon stored in soils in organic forms (from decomposing plants and microbes). Soil organic carbon makes up roughly half of soil organic matter by weight.

  • Biologically derived matter in soils, including living, dead, and decayed plant and microbial tissues. Soil organic matter is roughly half carbon on a dry-weight basis.

  • A measure of the intensity of solar radiant energy on a surface, measured in watts per square meter (W/m2) or power per unit area.

  • Reducing global warming by increasing how much of the sun's radiation is reflected back to space and/or decreasing how much of the Earth's radiative heat is trapped in the atmosphere. 

  • A material's ability to reflect solar radiation incident on its surface, often reported as a fraction or percentage.

  • soil organic matter

  • A substance that takes up another liquid or gas substance, either by absorbtion or adsorption.

  • sulfur oxides

  • sulfur dioxide

  • The rate at which a climate solution physically affects the atmosphere after being deployed. At Project Drawdown, we use three categories: emergency brake (fastest impact), gradual, or delayed (slowest impact).

  • Climate regions between latitudes 23.4° to 35° above and below the equator characterized by warm summers and mild winters.

  • A polluting gas produced primarily from burning fossil fuels and industrial processes that directly harms the environment and human health.

  • A group of gases containing sulfur and oxygen that predominantly come from burning fossil fuels. They contribute to air pollution, acid rain, and respiratory health issues.

  • Processes, people, and resources involved in producing and delivering a product from supplier to end customer, including material acquisition.

  • Sport utility vehicle

  • A mixture of hydrogen, carbon monoxide, and other gases, used to produce chemicals like ammonia and methanol, or as a synthetic fuel made from non-fossil feedstocks, including biomass and waste.

  • metric ton

  • metric tons

  • Technology developers, including founders, designers, inventors, R&D staff, and creators seeking to overcome technical or practical challenges.

  • Climate regions between 35° to 50° above and below the equator characterized by moderate mean annual temperatures and distinct seasons, with warm summers and cold winters.

  • A measure of energy equivalent to the energy delivered by one trillion watts of power over one hour.

  • trifluoroacetic acid

  • trifluoroacetic acid

  • A measurement indicating the ability of a material to release heat after it has been absorbed.

  • A measure of how well a material prevents heat flow, often called R-value or RSI-value for insulation. A higher R-value means better thermal performance.

  • A measure of the rate of heat flow or heat transfer through a material or building component. A lower U-value means better thermal performance.

  • Individuals with an established audience for their work, including public figures, experts, journalists, and educators.

  • Charges for disposal of materials paid to facility operators. Fees can be charged per ton of waste disposed or based on economic indicators such as the Consumer Price Index.

  • A solar PV systems with panels that move automatically to follow the sun’s path, maximizing energy capture and improving efficiency over fixed systems.

  • A window consisting of three panes of glass separated by two insulating inert gas-filled layers, providing more heat flow resistance than single or double glazing.

  • Low-latitude (23.4°S to 23.4°N) climate regions near the Equator characterized by year-round high temperatures and distinct wet and dry seasons.

  • Terawatt, equal to 1,000 gigawatts

  • terawatt-hour

  • United Nations

  • United Nations Environment Programme

  • U.S. Composting Council

  • Self-propelled machine for transporting passengers or freight on roads.

  • A measure of one vehicle traveling a distance of one kilometer.

  • Aerobic decomposition of organic waste by earthworms and microorganisms.

  • vehicle kilometer

  • volatile organic compound

  • Gases made of organic, carbon-based molecules that are readily released into the air from other solid or liquid materials. Some VOCs are greenhouse gases or can harm human health.

  • watt (a measure of power or energy transfer.)

  • Watts per square meter Kelvin

  • A thin, flat slice of silicon cut from an ingot and processed to create individual solar cells that convert sunlight into electricity.

  • Landscape waste, storm debris, wood processing residues, and recovered post-consumer wood.

  • A framework for waste management that ranks options by their sustainability: 1) prevent (do not purchase unnecessary waste), 2) reduce, 3) reuse, 4) recycle, 5) recover, 6) dispose.

  • A measure of power equal to one joule per second.

  • World Conservation Monitoring Centre

  • Using strategies such as insulation, air sealing, ventilation, and moisture control to upgrade a building’s exterior structure, making indoors more comfortable and energy efficient.

  • Aerobic decomposition of organic waste in long, narrow rows called windrows. Windrows are generally twice as long as they are wide.

  • A subset of forest ecosystems that may have sparser canopy cover,  smaller-stature trees, and/or trees characterized by basal branching rather than a single main stem.

  • extruded polystyrene

  • The rotation of the nacelle (the enclosed housing at the top of a wind turbine tower that contains the main mechanical and electrical components of the turbine) so that the rotor blades are always facing directly into the wind.

  • year-over-year

  • year

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