Cut Emissions Transportation Electrify Vehicles

Mobilize Seated Electric Scooters & Motorcycles

Highly Recommended
a pack of electric motorcycles

Electric scooters and motorcycles are battery-powered two- and three-wheeled vehicles that provide low-emissions mobility. This category of transport includes electric mopeds, motorbikes, seated motor scooters, motorcycles, and three-wheel vehicles, such as e-rickshaws and e-tuk-tuks. Electric scooters and motorcycles run on rechargeable batteries and are powered by electric motors rather than fossil fuel–powered internal combustion engines (ICEs), helping reduce transport-related GHG emissions. Pedal-assist (pedelecs) are covered in our Mobilize Electric Bicycles solution. Standing e-scooters/trotinettes and throttle-assisted bicycles are excluded because shared models have a short life cycle and in general are less beneficial from a climate standpoint than walking and biking, which they tend to replace (Fearnley & Veisten, 2025).

Last updated July 20, 2026

Solution Basics

million passenger kilometers (million pkm)

t CO₂-eq (100-yr)/unit
029.954.4median
units/yr
Current 865,000 05.642×10⁶7.522×10⁶
Achievable (Low to High)

Climate Impact

Gt CO₂-eq (100-yr)/yr
Current 0.05 0.310.41
US$ per t CO₂-eq
-382
Gradual

CO₂ , CH₄, N₂O

Additional Benefits

183,187
    183
    • 184
    • 185
    • 186
    • 187
    • 188
194

Overview

Electric scooters and motorcycles use electricity stored in batteries to power an electric motor, providing mobility similar to conventional fossil fuel–powered two- and three-wheelers while generating significantly lower GHG emissions because they replace fossil-fuel combustion with electricity (Barreiros, 2020; Carranza et al., 2022; Cox & Mutel, 2018; International Transport Forum, 2020, 2023b; La Fleur et al., 2024; Mera & Bieker, 2023; Montoya-Torres et al., 2023; Schneider at al., 2023; Tuayharn et al., 2015). 

Because of their efficiency, compact size, and affordability, electric scooters and motorcycles are particularly effective as transportation modes in urban and peri-urban areas. These vehicles are a low-emissions transport mode, especially when powered with renewable electricity. Electric scooters and motorcycles are also increasingly used for delivery services, shared fleets, ride-hailing, and formal and informal shared rental systems, helping displace car or fossil fuel–powered motorcycle trips that typically result in high per-person GHG emissions.

Safety issues, informal charging infrastructure, and concerns surrounding equitable access are the principal challenges standing in the way of broader adoption of electric scooters and motorcycles, particularly in emerging economies where most electric two- and three-wheelers operate (La Fleur et al., 2024). Meanwhile, emissions benefits related to electric scooters and motorcycles are typically lower in regions with carbon-intensive electricity. These vehicles may also offer fewer GHG emissions reductions benefits in areas with strong pre-existing public transportation systems, especially if broader adoption of electric scooters and motorcycles triggers a decrease in public transit use. Finally, electric two- and three-wheelers generate higher GHG emissions and provide fewer health benefits than do pedal-assisted electric bicycles; nevertheless, electric scooters and motorcycles remain far more efficient than cars in terms of GHG emissions (International Transport Forum, 2020).

In addition to reducing emissions of GHGs such as CO₂, methane, and nitrous oxide, electric scooters and motorcycles eliminate tailpipe pollutants such as nitrogen oxides and particulate matter, lower fossil-fuel use, and reduce noise (International Transport Forum, 2023a). They also provide an immediate and practical pathway for creating cleaner, more equitable cities.

Impact Calculator

Adjust effectiveness and adoption using range sliders to see resulting climate impact potential.

Effectiveness

54.4
t CO2-eq (100-yr)/unit
25th
percentile
29.9
75th
percentile
60.6
54.4
median

Adoption

865,000
million passenger kilometers (million pkm)/yr
Low
5.642×10⁶
High
7.522×10⁶
865,000
current
Achievable Range

Climate Impact

0.05
Gt CO₂-eq/yr (100-yr)
05
which is the equivalent of
0.08%
of global emissions

The Details

Current State

Electric scooters and motorcycles offer savings of 54.4 t CO₂‑eq /million pkm on a 100-year basis, compared with fossil fuel–powered models (Table 1) (Ayetor et al., 2023; Barreiros, 2020; Carranza et al., 2022; Cox & Mutel, 2018; International Transport Forum, 2020, 2023b; Mera & Bieker, 2023; Montoya-Torres et al., 2023; Polanco Vásquez et al., 2025; Schneider et al., 2023; Tuayharn et al., 2015). Every trip shifted from fossil fuel–powered models to electric models helps avoid GHG emissions by eliminating tailpipe emissions and replacing gasoline combustion with electricity use. Effectiveness is calculated by subtracting the per-pkm operating-phase emissions of electric models from the per-pkm operating-phase emissions of conventional fossil fuel–powered models. Furthermore, per-pkm emissions decrease as vehicle occupancy increases.

The extent of electric scooters and motorcycles’ long-term climate benefits across the vehicles’ life cycle depends on the local charging electricity grid mix. Widespread adoption of electric scooters and motorcycles supported by low-carbon grids delivers large GHG emissions reductions, while electric scooter and motorcycle usage supported by fossil fuel–dominant grids narrows the emissions advantage over ICE models (Jaramillio et al., 2022). The effectiveness of electric scooters and motorcycles is likely an underestimate in many cities, particularly in Africa, where these vehicles are well positioned to replace old two-stroke motorcycles that generate high levels of pollution due to poor maintenance, counterfeit spare parts, and weak GHG emissions enforcement (Wanyama et al., 2024).

Table 1. Effectiveness at reducing emissions.

Unit: t CO₂‑eq /million pkm, 100-yr basis

25th percentile 29.9
Mean 48.2
Median (50th percentile) 54.4
75th percentile 60.6

While it costs US$0.08/pkm to operate a fossil fuel–powered scooter or motorcycle, it costs only US$0.06/pkm for an electric model. This results in savings of US$0.02/pkm (US$20,800/million pkm) (Ayetor et al., 2023; Carranza et al., 2022; Cox & Mutel, 2018; Kumar, 2020; Kumar & Chakrabarty, 2020; La Fleur et al., 2024; Patil et al., 2022). These direct financial costs include vehicle purchase, maintenance expenses, and fuel. As a result, relying on electric models instead of their fossil fuel–powered counterparts generates a savings of US$382/t CO₂‑eq on a 100-year basis (Table 2).

Electric scooters and motorcycles also have a lower total operating cost than do fossil fuel–powered models, despite a higher initial purchase price. This is evident in a few African countries – including Ghana, Mauritius, Rwanda, Kenya, and South Africa – due to the high cost of gasoline compared with electricity (Ayetor et al., 2023). In Ghana, gasoline cost US$7.13/gallon in 2023 while electricity cost US$0.04/kWh (Ayetor et al., 2023). However, the price difference between gasoline and electricity is much less in other countries, such as Egypt, India, and Spain (Ayetor et al., 2023; Carranza et al., 2022; Cox & Mutel, 2018; Kumar & Chakrabarty, 2020; La Fleur et al., 2024; Patil et al., 2022; United Nations Environment Programme [UNEP], 2023).

In most countries, the payback period for electric scooter and motorcycle users is about three to four years (IEA, 2020) and as short as one year with intensive use (UNEP, 2023). Other countries, such as Pakistan, have reported a payback period as low as four to six months, while India reports a payback period ranging from one to eight years (Zia et al., 2025; Patil et al., 2022).

Table 2. Cost per unit of climate impact.

Unit: 2023 US$/t CO₂‑eq ,100-year basis

Median -382

Very little literature exists exploring learning rates for electric scooters and motorcycles. In this analysis, we estimated a learning rate of just over 5% based on the median battery learning rate (13.5%) applied to the median battery portion (40%) of total cost (Table 3). Weiss et al. (2015) calculated a learning rate of 8% for all electric two-wheelers combined, including electric bicycles, scooters, and motorcycles. 

Lithium-ion battery prices fell 97% during the past three decades, plummeting from US$7,500/kWh in 1991 to US$181/kWh in 2018. More importantly, lithium-ion battery costs halved between 2014–2018, while capacity increased by a factor of 50,000 over the same period. 

Continuing the recent trend, battery prices declined another 8% from 2024 to 2025, dropping to US$108/kWh in 2025 (BloombergNEF, 2025). While the component of the learning rate linked to decreases in the price of lithium-ion batteries is expected to diminish in the coming years, advances in materials, design, technology, and the use of different battery types may contribute to future learning rate increases. 

Table 3. Learning rate: Drop in cost per doubling of the installed solution base.

Unit: %

25th percentile 4.2
Mean 5.4
Median (50th percentile) 5.4
75th percentile 6.7

Speed of action refers to how quickly a climate solution physically affects the atmosphere after it is deployed. This is different from speed of deployment, which is the pace at which solutions are adopted.

At Project Drawdown, we define the speed of action for each climate solution as emergency brake, gradual, or delayed.

Mobilize Electric Scooters & Motorcycles is a GRADUAL climate solution. It has a steady, linear impact on the atmosphere. The cumulative effect over time builds as a straight line.

Adoption

With approximately 79 million electric scooters and motorcycles in use worldwide – which corresponds to roughly 9% of the total global stock of nearly 859 million scooters and motorcycles (IEA, 2025a) – we estimated that electric scooters and motorcycles travel 865 billion pkm/yr (Table 4). We assumed this travel would occur on fossil fuel–powered scooters and motorcycles if electric scooters and motorcycles were not used. Adoption rates of electric scooters and motorcycles are much higher in countries such as China, where the global electric scooters and motorcycles stock share in 2024 was 39%.

To convert this number into pkm traveled via electric scooters and motorcycles, we needed to determine the median distance that each scooter and motorcycle travels per year. Using data from several different countries, the median scooter and motorcycle travels about 10,950 vehicle-kilometers (vkm)/yr. The vehicle occupancy was assumed to be one passenger per vehicle (International Transport Forum, 2020), making vkm equal to pkm. While occupancy is likely higher, reliable data are scarce; however, generally speaking increases in occupancy reduce GHG emissions and lower cost per pkm. Multiplying this number by the number of electric scooters and motorcycles in use (79 million) provides the total travel distance shifted (865 billion pkm/yr) from fossil fuel–powered scooters and motorcycles to their electric equivalents.

Table 4. Current (2024) adoption level.

Unit: million pkm/yr

25th percentile 409,000
Mean 1,336,000
Median (50th percentile) 865,000
75th percentile 1,580,000

Globally, the pkm driven via electric scooters and motorcycles rather than via fossil fuel–powered scooters and motorcycles increases by a median of about 110 billion pkm/yr (Table 5). Electric scooters and motorcycles purchases grew 22%/yr between 2019–2024 (IEA, 2025a). Global purchases of electric scooters and motorcycles are increasing by roughly 10 million vehicles/yr (IEA, 2025a).

Table 5. 2019–2024 adoption trend.

Unit: million pkm/yr

25th percentile 41,000
Mean 166,000
Median (50th percentile) 110,000
75th percentile 200,000

The total adoption ceiling for electric scooters and motorcycles is equal to the total passenger distance driven via scooters and motorcycles worldwide. Using the median distance traveled per vehicle annually, this translates to about 9.4 trillion pkm traveled per year (Table 6).

Replacing every fossil fuel–powered scooter and motorcycle with an electric scooter or motorcycle would require not only a major scale-up of electric scooter and motorcycle manufacturing (both vehicles and batteries), but also the rapid deployment of convenient charging options at homes, workplaces, and public locations, and cost reductions to make the purchase price of electric models affordable across income groups. While ambitious, this transition is technically possible. Electric scooters and motorcycles are already being produced at scale in several markets with new capacity being quickly added. Meanwhile, continued declines in battery cost – plus expanding charging and battery-swapping networks – can make widespread replacement both practical and cost-effective (IEA, 2025a).

Table 6. Adoption ceiling

Unit: million pkm/yr

25th percentile 4,444,000
Mean 14,526,000
Median (50th percentile) 9,403,000
75th percentile 17,174,000

The achievable adoption of electric scooter and motorcycle travel is roughly 6–8 trillion pkm/yr shifted from fossil fuel–powered ICE vehicles.

Various organizations and researchers have forecast future electric scooter and motorcycle adoption trends. These are not assessments of feasible adoption per se; rather, they are predictions of likely rates of adoption, given various assumptions about the future (Anup et el., 2021; Gupta et al., 2023; IEA, 2025a; Kumar & Singh, 2024; UNEP, 2023). Nevertheless, these forecasts are useful considering the sheer number of variables they take into account. To convert these estimates of future likely adoption into estimates of the achievable adoption range, we applied some optimistic assumptions to the numbers in the scenario projections. 

To identify a lower feasible rate of adoption of electric scooters and motorcycles, we took the highest projected rate of electric scooters and motorcycles stock share by 2030, which was 60% in India according to Anup et al. (2021). This translates to 515 million electric scooters and motorcycles – or 5.6 trillion pkm/yr traveled via electric scooters and motorcycles.

To identify a high rate of adoption of electric scooters and motorcycles, we assumed that every country could reach the highest rate of adoption projected to occur for any country. Kumar and Singh (2024) predict that India could reach 80% electric scooters and motorcycles sales share by 2030; such a high share of sales would allow the stock share to quickly approach the rate of sales. We therefore set our high adoption rate at 80% adoption worldwide, which corresponds to 687 million electric scooters and motorcycles in use and 7.5 trillion pkm/yr traveled via electric scooters and motorcycles (Table 7). 

Table 7. Range of achievable adoption levels.

Unit: million pkm/yr

Current adoption 865,000
Achievable – low 5,642,000
Achievable – high 7,522,000
Adoption ceiling (physical limit) 9,403,000

Impacts

Electric scooters and motorcycles currently displace 0.05 Gt CO₂‑eq/yr of GHG emissions from the transportation system on a 100-yr basis (Table 8). 

If electric scooters and motorcycles achieve 60% of the global scooters and motorcycles stock share – as Anup et al. (2021) projects will take place in India (our low achievable adoption estimate) – then with the current total number of scooters and motorcycles on the road, electric scooters and motorcycles will displace 0.31 Gt CO₂‑eq/yr of GHG emissions on a 100-yr basis.

If electric scooters and motorcycles reach 80% of global scooters and motorcycles stock share – our high achievable adoption estimate, as Kumar and Singh (2024) estimate might eventually happen in sales (that would lead to stock) in India – they will displace 0.41 Gt CO₂‑eq/yr of GHG emissions on a 100-yr basis.

And if electric scooters and motorcycles replace 100% of the global fleet of scooters and motorcycles – the adoption ceiling – they will displace 0.51 Gt CO₂‑eq/yr of GHG emissions on a 100-yr basis.

These estimates are based on the present-day emissions intensity from electrical grids; if grids become cleaner over time, the cumulative climate benefits of electric scooters and motorcycles would be even greater.

Table 8. Climate impact at different levels of adoption.

Unit: Gt CO₂‑eq/yr, 100-yr basis

Current adoption 0.05
Achievable – low 0.31
Achievable – high 0.41
Adoption ceiling (physical limit) 0.51

Income and Work

While the up-front cost of electric scooters and motorcycles is generally higher than that of fossil fuel–powered ICE scooters and motorcycles, electric scooter users and motorcyclists can save money on fuel costs once the initial costs are covered. Depending on mileage driven and fuel costs, the up-front cost can usually be recouped in three to four years (IEA, 2020) or if used intensively, in about one year (UNEP, 2023).

Health

Since electric scooters and motorcycles do not have tailpipe emissions, they can mitigate exposure to traffic-related air pollution, which is associated with asthma, lung cancer, increased emergency department visits for respiratory disease, and increased mortality (Anenberg et al., 2019; Guarnieri & Balmes, 2014; Pan et al., 2023; Pennington et al., 2024; Requia et al., 2018; Szyszkowicz et al., 2018). Fossil fuel–powered motorcycles also emit toxic compounds such as benzene, formaldehyde, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, which are associated with increased cancer risk and short-term respiratory conditions (Kamakaté & Gordon, 2009). 

Communities rich in racial and ethnic minorities tend to be located near highways and major traffic corridors, making those communities disproportionately exposed to air pollution compared to neighboring areas (Kerr et al., 2021). As a result, transitioning to electric scooters and motorcycles could improve community health in marginalized urban neighborhoods near highways (Pennington et al., 2024). These health benefits would prove particularly important for people in densely populated cities – especially in low- and middle-income countries where scooters and motorcycles are widely used and where air quality is often poor (La Fleur et al., 2024). It should be noted some of these benefits depend on the type of fuel used for electricity generation and could displace air pollution from urban centers to more rural areas near power plants. 

Fossil fuel–powered ICE scooters and motorcycles can be very noisy, especially if they are not maintained regularly. In urban areas where motorcycles are a common choice for transportation, adopting electric motorcycles could improve noise pollution, which is a major chronic concern in cities across Asia and Africa (Kamakaté & Gordon, 2009; Hernandez et al., 2019; Sheng et al., 2016).

Air Quality

With the rapid growth of scooter use in urban areas of low- and middle-income countries, more widespread adoption of electric scooters could improve air pollution in densely populated areas where air quality is often a major concern. Increased adoption of electric scooters and motorcycles also reduces emissions of air pollutants associated with tailpipes, including particulate matter, sulfur oxides, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, and volatile organic compounds (Requia et al., 2018). 

Other

The climate effectiveness of electric scooters and motorcycles depends strongly on the GHG emissions intensity of the electricity used for charging (Jaramillo et al., 2022). Additionally, it is important to consider that real-world performance and user acceptance of electric scooters and motorcycles can hinge on charging convenience and reliability. Even though many models can charge from standard sockets and some can use swapping, limited access to safe, affordable charging at home, work, or in public can constrain the degree to which electric scooters and motorcycles can be driven in practice (IEA, 2025b). Finally, in places where battery swapping is part of the charging strategy for electric scooters and motorcycles, the lack of common standards and interoperability (including battery form factors, connectors, communication protocols, and locking interfaces) can fragment markets and limit cross-brand usability, reducing the convenience benefits that swapping is meant to provide. 

Electricity often costs less per pkm than gasoline, and electric scooter and motorcycle maintenance can be cheaper than maintenance for fossil fuel–powered ICE scooters and motorcycles. These factors lower marginal travel costs, which may increase pkm traveled for some users – partially offsetting GHG emissions benefits. This is a form of the rebound effect, where efficiency gains are offset by increased travel demand (Jaramillo et al., 2022).

If electric scooter and motorcycle fleets grow at a rate that outpaces the implementation of relevant safety measures, road safety could worsen given scooters and motorcycles already account for a large share of road traffic deaths worldwide. Rapid uptake of electric scooters and motorcycles in the absence of safer infrastructure, speed management, helmets, and enforcement could increase injuries and fatalities (World Health Organization [WHO], 2022). 

Many electric scooters and motorcycles can charge from a standard household socket. Some areas also have battery swapping, meaning that infrastructure requirements for electric scooters and motorcycles are much lower than those for electric cars. However, there are still infrastructure requirements associated with electric scooter and motorcycle usage because riders need reliable, safe, and affordable access to charging or swapping, which can be a barrier for people who park on-street, live in multi-unit housing, or lack secure electricity access. For high-utilization commercial users such as delivery riders or motorcycle taxis, availability and uptime are critical, whereas downtime can lead to reduced earnings and weaken the business case for electrification (IEA, 2025b).

Reinforcing

Electric scooters and motorcycles reinforce non-car transportation modes by extending reach, offering first- and last-mile connections, and providing flexible options where fixed-route services are limited.

Competing 

Electric scooters and motorcycles compete with alternatives to cars for the same traffic share. Once people have access to a scooter or motorcycle – electric or otherwise – they tend to use it frequently, to the detriment of other modes of transportation.

Consensus of effectiveness in decarbonizing the transport sector: High

A high level of consensus exists among major organizations working in the climate solutions arena that mobilizing electric scooters and motorcycles can offer a substantial reduction in GHG emissions. This segment of the transportation sector is already the most electrified in road transport globally, with roughly 79 million electric scooters and motorcycles on the road – or about 9% of the global fleet. IEA (2024) notes that full electrification of this segment is “within reach” with stronger policy support. Worldwide, road transport was responsible for more than 6 Gt CO₂ ‑eq emissions in 2024; more than 90% of those emissions came from cars and vans (60%) and trucks (33%), whereas only 7% of those emissions were generated by scooters and motorcycles (IEA, 2025a). 

Electric scooters and motorcycles have been found to reduce external environmental costs as well, suggesting they can help accelerate the shift toward more sustainable transport systems (Carranza et al., 2022). Electric scooters and motorcycles generally outperform fossil fuel–powered scooter and motorcycle models in terms of environmental indicators (Montoya-Torres et al., 2023), and can retain advantages even when charged using electricity generated primarily from coal (Cox & Mutel, 2018).

The results presented in our analysis summarize findings from 14 original studies and seven reports reflecting current evidence from 23 countries. We recognize this limited geographic scope creates bias, and hope this work inspires research and data sharing on this topic in underrepresented regions.

Take Action

Looking to get involved? Below are some key actions for this solution that can get you started, arranged according to different roles you may play in your professional or personal life.

These actions are meant to be starting points for involvement and are not intended to be prescriptive or necessarily suggest they are the most important or impactful actions to take. We encourage you to explore and get creative!

Lawmakers and Policymakers
  • Set national goals for transitioning transportation to low- and no-emission vehicles; include ambitious targets for shifting to electric models of scooters and motorcycles.
  • Create government procurement policies to transition government fleets to electric models of scooters and motorcycles.
  • Provide financial incentives – such as subsidies, tax breaks, grants, and low-interest loans – for consumers, retailers, and manufacturers; provide targeted incentives and support for battery-swapping stations to help develop the market for electric scooters and motorcycles; offer financial assistance to low- and middle-income communities to purchase electric scooters and motorcycles.
  • Collaborate at the international level to develop manufacturing and safety standards to facilitate trade and adoption.
  • Simultaneously transition fossil-fuel electricity production to renewables while promoting the transition to electric scooters and motorcycles.
  • Implement performance and emissions standards; gradually increase stringency of standards; consider phasing out fossil fuel–powered ICE vehicles; simultaneously unroll incentive policies to make adoption both easier and more affordable for retailers and drivers alike.
  • Develop charging and battery-swapping infrastructure, ensuring adequate spacing between stations and equitable distribution of stations; consider regulations to require standard sockets in electric scooters and motorcycles.
  • Construct dedicated lanes for scooters and motorcycles in addition to protected lanes for nonmotorized vehicles and e-bikes; include guardrails and/or demarcations to separate dedicated lanes from other traffic; construct bypasses around bus stops and public transportation; dedicate tunnels and passages, if necessary, to improve safety; optimize traffic signals to ensure traffic flow isn’t disrupted.
  • Set green manufacturing standards – including incentives or requirements for products such as green aluminum and steel – if possible and practicable. 
  • Develop recovery and recycling programs for both electric and fossil fuel–powered ICE models; implement buyback programs to facilitate upgrades to electric scooters and motorcycles; set minimum standards for recyclability and to guarantee the inclusion of recycled materials in electric scooters and motorcycles, and gradually increase the stringency of those standards; set clear guidelines for collection points for recycled materials and adhere to standards for acceptable origins of recycled materials. 
  • Collaborate with industry leaders to develop battery standards for performance, interoperability, and battery-swapping stations, and diversify supply chains for batteries and other necessary components to enhance domestic production capabilities.
  • Set standards for carbon emissions, raw material usage, water footprint, and environmental impact for batteries on the market; gradually increase stringency of those standards to reduce environmental impact; encourage or require battery components to be recyclable and use recycled material when possible; set legal requirements for batteries to be replaceable; consider requiring the use of product passports for batteries, ensuring the passport includes operationally-relevant information such as diagnostics, individual identification numbers, and information on repair, reuse, and recycling (in addition to environmental impact information). 
  • Increase funding for agencies responsible for road safety and ensure strong enforcement of safety regulations; rapidly expand safety measures such as improving infrastructure and road conditions, enforcing speed management, implementing legal requirements for helmets, and introducing load limits to reduce risks; support public education initiatives and the creation of visible road signage; encourage the use of reflective gear and protective clothing for drivers and passagers; develop and enforce laws related to alcohol impairment while driving; consider mandating speed governors.
  • Create and/or mandate dedicated parking spots for electric scooters and motorcycles, ensuring equitable distribution; include incentives for placing charging and battery-swapping stations at these lots if possible.
  • Extend vehicle recall and audit programs to include electric scooters and motorcycles.
  • Require compulsory skill testing for licenses or permits to drive scooters and motorcycles; offer retraining programs for drivers upgrading to electric scooters and motorcycles from their fossil fuel–powered equivalents; require vehicle registration and offer green vehicle designations for preferential treatment for parking and access to recreational parks.
  • Support workforce development programs to improve technician and retailer skills and knowledge; create focused programs for handling and repairing batteries and tire repair; ensure workforce development programs include and seek to recruit women technicians; create dedicated hotlines for discrimination in the sector.
  • Expand taxi regulations to include electric scooters and motorcycles; require specific permits and safety features for these taxis.
  • Join international efforts to promote environmental and human rights standards and ensure those standards are met with regard to electric scooter and motorcycle supply chains.
  • Offer one-stop shops for information on electric scooters and motorcycles, including demonstrations and educational resources on cost savings, environmental impact, and maintenance; include information helpdesks to support retailers and consumers. 
  • Create, support, or join partnerships that offer information, training, and general support for electric scooters and motorcycle adoption.

Further information:

Practitioners
  • Help policymakers set national goals for transitioning transportation to low- and no-emission vehicles; assist policymakers in developing ambitious targets for shifting to electric scooter and motorcycle models.
  • Take advantage of financial incentives to sell, repair, recycle, or manufacture electric scooters and motorcycles.
  • Ensure electric scooters and motorcycles include standard safety features such as anti-lock brake systems, daytime running headlights, and diagnostic dashboards to alert drivers to maintenance issues.
  • Develop charging and battery-swapping infrastructure, ensuring adequate spacing between stations and equitable distribution of stations.
  • Sell safety equipment and consider offering deals that include helmets, reflective gear, and protective clothing for those purchasing an electric scooter or motorcycle.
  • Invest in R&D to improve manufacturing, adoption, supply chain standards, and circularity of electric scooters and motorcycles, particularly batteries.
  • Offer warranties for both vehicles and batteries comparable or better than warranties offered for fossil fuel–powered ICE models.
  • Create vehicle- and ride-sharing schemes for electric scooters and motorcycles.
  • Work with policymakers and other industry leaders to diversify supply chains and create domestic production capabilities.
  • Recycle and recover material from batteries as quickly as possible – and avoid hoarding batteries in expectation of future compensation – to improve the circularity of the industry. 
  • Gather consent-based data on rider information and patterns; make onboard interfaces compatible with WiFi; update software regularly to improve performance, facilitate driver feedback, and increase product longevity. 
  • Develop, create, or work with battery-swapping businesses, helping promote interoperability and customer awareness; consider models such as leasing and battery-as-a-service, which allow customers to use and swap batteries without owning them.
  • Join international efforts to promote environmental and human rights standards and ensure those standards are met with regard to electric scooter and motorcycle supply chains.
  • Offer one-stop shops for information on electric scooters and motorcycles, including demonstrations and educational resources on cost savings, environmental impact, and maintenance; include information helpdesks to support retailers and consumers. 
  • Create, support, or join partnerships that offer information, training, and general support for electric scooters and motorcycle adoption.

Further information:

Business Leaders
  • Set company procurement policies to transition corporate fleets to electric models of scooters and motorcycles.
  • Take advantage of any financial incentives, such as tax breaks, subsidies, or grants for electric scooter and motorcycle purchases.
  • Create long-term purchasing agreements with manufacturers to support stable demand and improve economies of scale.
  • Install charging and battery-swapping stations; offer employee benefits for electric scooter or motorcycle drivers, such as privileged parking areas.
  • Invest in R&D to improve manufacturing, adoption, supply chain standards, and circularity of electric scooters and motorcycles, particularly batteries.
  • Advocate for financial incentives and policies that promote electric scooter and motorcycle adoption.
  • Join international efforts to promote environmental and human rights standards and ensure those standards are met with regard to electric scooter and motorcycle supply chains.
  • Educate customers and investors about the company's transition to electric models of scooters and motorcycles; encourage them to learn more about these alternatives to fossil fuel–powered scooters and motorcycles.
  • Create, support, or join partnerships that offer information, training, and general support for electric scooters and motorcycle adoption.

Further information:

Nonprofit Leaders
  • Work with policymakers to help set national goals for transitioning transportation to low- and no-emission vehicles; assist policymakers in developing ambitious targets for shifting to electric scooter and motorcycle model adoption.
  • Advocate for financial incentives for consumers, retailers, and manufacturers, such as subsidies, tax breaks, grants, and low-interest loans; recommend providing targeted incentives and support for battery-swapping stations to help develop the market for electric scooters and motorcycles; offer financial assistance to low- and middle-income communities to purchase electric scooters and motorcycles.
  • Work at the international level to develop manufacturing and safety standards to facilitate trade and adoption.
  • Advocate to transition fossil fuel electricity production to renewables while promoting the transition to electric scooters and motorcycles.
  • Push for ambitious performance and emissions standards; suggest gradually increasing stringency of standards; consider advocating for the phasing out of fossil fuel–powered ICE vehicles; advocate simultaneously for public incentives to make adoption easier and affordable for retailers and drivers alike.
  • Help develop, plan, and design charging and battery-swapping infrastructure, ensuring adequate spacing between stations and equitable distribution of stations; advocate for regulations to require standard sockets in electric scooters and motorcycles.
  • Develop recovery and recycling programs for both electric and fossil fuel–powered ICE models; offer buyback programs to facilitate upgrades to electric scooters and motorcycles; advocate for minimum standards for recyclability and to guarantee the inclusion of recycled materials in electric scooters and motorcycles, and gradually increase the stringency of those standards; help set clear guidelines for collection points for recycled materials and adhere to standards for acceptable origins of recycled materials. 
  • Collaborate with policymakers and key industry players to develop battery standards for performance, interoperability, and battery swapping stations. 
  • Work with policymakers and industry leaders to diversify supply chains for batteries and other necessary components and create domestic production capabilities.
  • Help set standards for carbon emissions, raw material use, water footprint, and environmental impact for batteries on the market; advocate for the gradual increase of standards to reduce environmental impact; advocate for requirements for battery components to be recyclable and use recycled material when possible; help set legal requirements for batteries to be replaceable; advocate for the use of product passports for batteries, ensuring the passport includes operationally-relevant information such as diagnostics, individual identification numbers, and information on repair, reuse, and recycling (in addition to environmental impact information). 
  • Advocate for increased funding for agencies responsible for road safety and encourage strong enforcement of safety regulations; help plan for expanding safety measures, such as improving infrastructure and road conditions, enforcing speed management, implementing legal requirements for helmets, and introducing load limits to reduce risks; support public education initiatives and the creation of visible road signage; encourage the use of reflective gear and protective clothing for drivers and passengers; develop and enforce laws for alcohol impairment while driving; consider mandating speed governors.
  • Call on policymakers to require dedicated parking spots for electric scooters and motorcycles, ensuring equitable distribution; advocate for incentives for placing charging and battery-swapping infrastructure at these lots if possible.
  • Administer vehicle recall and audit programs for electric scooters and motorcycles.
  • Offer road-safety retraining programs for drivers upgrading to electric scooters and motorcycles; advocate for green vehicle designations and preferential treatment for parking and access to recreational parks.
  • Develop and/or support workforce development programs to improve technician and retailer skills and knowledge; create focused programs for handling and repairing batteries and tire repair; ensure workforce development programs include and seek to recruit women technicians; create dedicated hotlines for discrimination in the sector.
  • Offer one-stop shops for information on electric scooters and motorcycles, including demonstrations and educational resources on cost savings, environmental impact, and maintenance; include information helpdesks to support retailers and consumers. 
  • Join international efforts to promote environmental and human rights standards and ensure those standards are met with regard to electric scooter and motorcycle supply chains.
  • Create, support, or join partnerships that offer information, training, and general support for electric scooters and motorcycle adoption.

Further information:

Investors
  • Invest in electric scooter and motorcycle companies and start-ups, including battery and component suppliers.
  • Explore investment opportunities that address supply chain issues such as battery suppliers and maintenance providers.
  • Invest in companies conducting R&D to improve electric scooter and motorcycle performance, decrease the need for materials, and reduce maintenance costs.
  • Invest in electric scooter- and motorcycle-sharing systems.
  • Offer concessional financing for companies transitioning fleets to electric scooters and motorcycles.
  • Invest in companies developing charging and battery-swapping infrastructure for electric scooters and motorcycles.
  • Join international efforts to promote environmental and human rights standards and ensure those standards are met with regard to electric scooter and motorcycle supply chains.
  • Create, support, or join partnerships that offer information, training, and general support for electric scooters and motorcycle adoption.

Further information:

Philanthropists and International Aid Agencies
  • Work with policymakers to help set national goals for transitioning transportation to low- and no-emission vehicles; assist policymakers in developing ambitious targets for shifting to electric models of scooters and motorcycles.
  • Advocate for financial incentives for consumers, retailers, and manufacturers, such as subsidies, tax breaks, grants, and low-interest loans; recommend providing targeted incentives and support for battery-swapping stations to help develop the market for electric scooters and motorcycles; offer financial assistance to low- and middle-income communities to purchase electric scooters and motorcycles.
  • Provide grants for electric scooter and motorcycle companies and start-ups, including battery and component suppliers.
  • Explore opportunities that address supply chain issues such as battery suppliers and maintenance providers.
  • Offer financing for companies conducting R&D to improve electric scooter and motorcycle performance, decrease the need for materials, and reduce maintenance costs.
  • Support systems for sharing electric scooters and motorcycles.
  • Offer grants or financing for companies developing charging and battery-swapping infrastructure for electric scooters and motorcycles.
  • Work at the international level to develop manufacturing and safety standards to facilitate trade and adoption.
  • Advocate to transition fossil-fuel electricity production to renewables while promoting the transition to electric scooters and motorcycles.
  • Push for ambitious performance and emissions standards; suggest gradually increasing stringency of standards; consider advocating for the phasing out of fossil fuel–powered ICE vehicles; advocate simultaneously for public incentives to make adoption easier and affordable for retailers and drivers alike.
  • Help develop, plan, and design charging and battery-swapping infrastructure, ensuring adequate spacing between stations and equitable distribution of stations; advocate for regulations to require standard sockets in electric scooters and motorcycles.
  • Develop recovery and recycling programs for both electric and fossil fuel–powered ICE models; offer buyback programs to facilitate upgrades to electric scooters and motorcycles; advocate for minimum standards for recyclability and to guarantee the inclusion of recycled materials in electric scooters and motorcycles, and gradually increase the stringency of those standards; help set clear guidelines for collection points for recycled materials and adhere to standards for acceptable origins of recycled materials. 
  • Collaborate with policymakers and the industry to develop battery standards for performance, interoperability, and battery-swapping stations.
  • Work with policymakers and industry leaders to diversify supply chains for batteries and other necessary components and create domestic production capabilities.
  • Help set standards for carbon emissions, raw material use, water footprint, and environmental impact for batteries on the market; advocate for the gradual increase of standards to reduce impact; advocate for requirements for battery components to be recyclable and use recycled material when possible; help set legal requirements for batteries to be replaceable; advocate for the use of product passports for batteries, ensuring the passport includes operationally relevant information such as diagnostics, individual identification numbers, and information on repair, reuse, and recycling (in addition to environmental impact information). 
  • Advocate for or provide increased funding for agencies responsible for road safety and encourage strong enforcement of safety regulations; help plan for expanding safety measures such as improving infrastructure and road conditions, enforcing speed management, implementing legal requirements for helmets, and introducing load limits to reduce risks; support public education initiatives and the creation of visible road signage; encourage the use of reflective gear and protective clothing for drivers and passengers; advocate for laws for alcohol impairment while driving; consider mandating speed governors.
  • Call on policymakers to require dedicated parking spots for electric scooters and motorcycles, ensuring equitable distribution; advocate for incentives for placing charging and battery swapping infrastructure at these lots if possible.
  • Support or help administer vehicle recall and audit programs for electric scooters and motorcycles.
  • Offer or support road safety retraining programs for drivers upgrading to electric scooters and motorcycles; advocate for green vehicle designations and preferential treatment for parking and access to recreational parks.
  • Develop and/or support workforce development programs to improve technician and retailer skills and knowledge; create focused programs for handling and repairing batteries and tire repair; ensure workforce development programs include and seek to recruit women technicians; create dedicated hotlines for discrimination in the sector.
  • Offer one-stop shops for information on electric scooters and motorcycles, including demonstrations and educational resources on cost savings, environmental impact, and maintenance; include information helpdesks to support retailers and consumers. 
  • Join international efforts to promote environmental and human rights standards and ensure those standards are met with regard to electric scooter and motorcycle supply chains.
  • Create, support, or join partnerships that offer information, training, and general support for electric scooters and motorcycle adoption.

Further information:

Thought Leaders
  • Help policymakers set national goals for transitioning transportation to low- and no-emission vehicles; assist policymakers in developing ambitious targets for shifting to electric models of scooters and motorcycles.
  • Advocate for financial incentives for consumers, retailers, and manufacturers, such as subsidies, tax breaks, grants, and low-interest loans; recommend providing targeted incentives and support for battery-swapping stations to help develop the market for electric scooters and motorcycles; advocate for financial assistance for low- and middle-income communities to purchase electric scooters and motorcycles.
  • Work at the international level to develop manufacturing and safety standards to facilitate trade and adoption.
  • Advocate to transition fossil fuel electricity production to renewables while promoting the transition to electric scooters and motorcycles.
  • Push for ambitious performance and emissions standards; suggest gradually increasing stringency of standards; consider advocating for the phasing out of fossil fuel–powered ICE vehicles; advocate simultaneously for public incentives to make adoption easier and affordable for retailers and drivers alike.
  • Help develop, plan, and design charging and battery-swapping infrastructure, ensuring adequate spacing between stations and equitable distribution of stations; advocate for regulations to require standard sockets in electric scooters and motorcycles.
  • Help develop certification programs for manufacturers of electric scooters and motorcycles to ensure quality and safety before mass production.
  • Develop recovery and recycling programs for both electric and fossil fuel–powered ICE models; offer buyback programs to facilitate upgrades to electric scooters and motorcycles; advocate for minimum standards for recyclability and to guarantee the inclusion of recycled materials in electric scooters and motorcycles, and gradually increase the stringency of those standards; help set clear guidelines for collection points for recycled materials and adhere to standards for acceptable origins of recycled materials. 
  • Collaborate with policymakers and the industry to develop battery standards for performance, interoperability, and battery-swapping stations.
  • Help set standards for carbon emissions, raw material use, water footprint, and environmental impact for batteries on the market; advocate for the gradual increase of standards to reduce impact; advocate for requirements for battery components to be recyclable and use recycled material when possible; help set legal requirements for batteries to be replaceable; advocate for the use of product passports for batteries, ensuring the passport includes operationally-relevant information such as diagnostics, individual identification numbers, and information on repair, reuse, and recycling (in addition to environmental impact information). 
  • Advocate for increased funding for agencies responsible for road safety and encourage strong enforcement of safety regulations; help plan for expanding safety measures, such as improving infrastructure and road conditions, enforcing speed management, implementing legal requirements for helmets, and introducing load limits to reduce risks; support public education initiatives and the creation of visible road signage; encourage the use of reflective gear and protective clothing for drivers and passengers; develop and enforce laws for alcohol impairment while driving; consider mandating speed governors.
  • Call on policymakers to require dedicated parking spots for electric scooters and motorcycles, ensuring equitable distribution; advocate for incentives for placing charging stations at these lots if possible.
  • Help create one-stop shops for information on electric scooters and motorcycles, including demonstrations and educational resources on cost savings, environmental impact, and maintenance; include information helpdesks to support retailers and consumers. 
  • Join international efforts to promote environmental and human rights standards and ensure those standards are met with regard to electric scooter and motorcycle supply chains.
  • Create, support, or join partnerships that offer information, training, and general support for electric scooters and motorcycle adoption.

Further information:

Technologists and Researchers
  • Conduct research and development on promising battery technology, such as sodium-ion and solid-state batteries.
  • Help create modular designs for batteries to improve maintenance, recovery of materials, and battery swapping.
  • Create more durable batteries to withstand high heat; create safeguards against overcharging and electrolyte leaks; improve performance, range, and rate of discharge of batteries.
  • Improve recyclability and circularity of supply chains for electric scooter and motorcycle vehicles and batteries.
  • Design batteries to reduce the required amount of critical minerals.
  • Innovate low-cost methods to improve safety, labor standards, and supply chains in mining for critical minerals.
  • Develop methods of converting fossil fuel–powered scooter and motorcycle manufacturing and infrastructure to electric.

Further information:

Communities, Households, and Individuals
  • If purchasing a new scooter or motorcycle, purchase an electric model; consider upgrading fossil fuel–powered ICE models to their electric counterparts.
  • Take advantage of any financial incentives offered, such as tax breaks, subsidies, or grants for purchases.
  • Share your experiences with electric scooters and motorcycles through social media and peer-to-peer networks, highlighting cost savings, benefits, incentive programs, and troubleshooting tips.
  • Help shift the narrative around electric scooters and motorcycles by demonstrating the vehicles’ capability and performance.
  • Advocate for financial incentives for consumers, retailers, and manufacturers, such as subsidies, tax breaks, grants, and low-interest loans; recommend providing targeted incentives and support for battery swapping stations to help develop the market for electric scooters and motorcycles; advocate for financial assistance to low- and middle-income communities to purchase electric scooters and motorcycles.
  • Propose increased funding for agencies responsible for road safety and encourage strong enforcement of safety regulations; help plan for expanding safety measures, such as improving infrastructure and road conditions, enforcing speed management, implementing legal requirements for helmets, and introducing load limits to reduce risks; support public education initiatives and the creation of visible road signage; encourage the use of reflective gear and protective clothing for drivers and passengers; develop and enforce laws for alcohol impairment while driving; consider mandating speed governors.
  • Call on policymakers to require dedicated parking spots for electric scooters and motorcycles, ensuring equitable distribution; advocate for incentives for placing charging and battery-swapping infrastructure at these lots if possible.

Further information:

“Take Action” Sources

References

Anenberg, S., Miller, J., Henze, D., & Minjares, R. (2019). A global snapshot of the air pollution-related health impacts of transportation sector emissions in 2010 and 2015 [Report]. International Council on Clean Transportation. Link to source: https://theicct.org/publication/a-global-snapshot-of-the-air-pollution-related-health-impacts-of-transportation-sector-emissions-in-2010-and-2015/ 

Anup, S., Deo, A., & Bandivadekar, A. (2021). Impact of fuel consumption standard on electrification of two-wheelers in India [Technical paper 2021-26-0050]. SAE International. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.4271/2021-26-0050

Ayetor, G. K., Mbonigaba, I., & Mashele, J. (2023). Feasibility of electric two and three-wheelers in Africa. Green Energy and Intelligent Transportation, 2(4), Article 100106. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geits.2023.100106

Barreiros, T. V. (2020). Comparison of the life cycle of different scooters used in Berlin [Report 1.0]. GreenDelta GmbH. Link to source: https://www.openlca.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/Report_Scooters_in_Berlin.pdf 

BloombergNEF. (2025, December 9). Lithium-ion battery pack prices fall to $108 per kilowatt-hour, despite rising metal prices: BloombergNEF [Press release]. Link to source: https://about.bnef.com/insights/clean-transport/lithium-ion-battery-pack-prices-fall-to-108-per-kilowatt-hour-despite-rising-metal-prices-bloombergnef

Carranza, G., Do Nascimiento, M., Fanals, J., Febrer, J., & Valderrama, C. (2022). Life cycle assessment and economic analysis of the electric motorcycle in the city of Barcelona and the impact on air pollution. Science of The Total Environment, 821, Article 153419. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.153419

Cox, B. L., & Mutel, C. L. (2018). The environmental and cost performance of current and future motorcycles. Applied Energy, 212, 1013–1024. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2017.12.100

Fearnley, N., & Veisten, K. (2025). What proportions of different transport modes do e-scooters replace? A meta-analysis. Journal of Cycling and Micromobility Research, 5, Article 100082. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcmr.2025.100082

Guarnieri, M., & Balmes, J. R. (2014). Outdoor air pollution and asthma. The Lancet, 383(9928), 1581–1592. Link to source: https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(14)60617-6/abstract 

Gupta, R., Hertzke, P., Lath, V., & Vig, G. (2023). The real global EV buzz comes on two wheels. McKinsey & Company. Link to source: https://www.mckinsey.com/industries/automotive-and-assembly/our-insights/the-real-global-ev-buzz-comes-on-two-wheels

Hernandez, M., Kockelman, K. M., Lentz, J. O., & Lee, J. (2019). Emissions and noise mitigation through use of electric motorcycles. Transportation Safety and Environment, 1(2), 164–175. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1093/tse/tdz013

International Energy Agency. (2020). Sustainable recovery [Report]. Link to source: https://www.iea.org/reports/sustainable-recovery

International Energy Agency. (2024). Global EV outlook 2024. Link to source: https://www.iea.org/reports/global-ev-outlook-2024/outlook-for-electric-mobility 

International Energy Agency. (2025a). Global EV outlook 2025 [Report]. Link to source: https://www.iea.org/reports/global-ev-outlook-2025

International Energy Agency. (2025b). Breakthrough agenda report 2025 [Report]. Link to source: https://iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/6f3b4ad7-b1aa-4791-b363-e4efe58cbb83/BreakthroughAgendaReport2025.pdf 

International Transport Forum. (2020). Good to go? Assessing the environmental performance of new mobility [Corporate partnership board report]. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development/International Transport Forum. Link to source: https://www.itf-oecd.org/good-to-go-environmental-performance-new-mobility 

International Transport Forum. (2023a). ITF transport outlook 2023 [Report]. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1787/b6cc9ad5-en 

International Transport Forum. (2023b). Life-cycle assessment of passenger transport: An Indian case study [Policy paper]. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1787/2d11e416-en

Jaramillo, P., Ribeiro, S. K., Newman, P., Dhar, S., Diemuodeke, O. E., Kajino, T., Lee, D. S., Nugroho, S. B., Ou, X., Strømman, A. H., & Whitehead, J. (2022). Transport. In P. R. Shukla, J. Skea, R. Slade, A. Al Khourdajie, R. van Diemen, D. McCollum, M. Pathak, S. Some, P. Vyas, R. Fradera, M. Belkacemi, A. Hasija, G. Lisboa, S. Luz, & J. Malley (Eds.), Climate change 2022: Mitigation of climate change. Contribution of working group III to the sixth assessment report of the intergovernmental panel on climate change (pp. 1049–1160). Cambridge University Press. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009157926.012

Kamakaté, F., & Gordon, D. (2009). Managing motorcycles: Opportunities to reduce pollution and fuel use from two- and three-wheeled vehicles [Report]. International Council on Clean Transportation. Link to source: https://theicct.org/publication/managing-motorcycles-opportunities-to-reduce-pollution-and-fuel-use-from-two-and-three-wheeled-vehicles/

Kerr, G. H., Goldberg, D. L., & Anenberg, S. C. (2021). COVID-19 pandemic reveals persistent disparities in nitrogen dioxide pollution. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 118(30), Article e2022409118. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2022409118

Kumar, P. (2020, November 3). Busting the cost barrier: Why electric three-wheelers make business sense. World Resources Institute India. Link to source: https://wri-india.org/blogs/busting-cost-barrier-why-electric-three-wheelers-make-business-sense

Kumar, P., & Chakrabarty, S. (2020). Total cost of ownership analysis of the impact of vehicle usage on the economic viability of electric vehicles in India. Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board, 2674(11), 563–572. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1177/0361198120947089 

Kumar, P., & Singh, A. (2024). Emerging opportunities for battery swapping in the electric two-wheeler segment in India. Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board, 2678(1), 568–582. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1177/03611981231171916

La Fleur, L., Lindkvist, E., Trångteg, R., Winter, S., & Thollander, P. (2024). Riding the future: Environmental, primary energy and economic analysis of an electric motorcycle - A Kenyan case study. Energy for Sustainable Development, 83, Article 101573. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.esd.2024.101573

Mera, Z., & Bieker, G. (2023). Comparison of the life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions of combustion engine and electric passenger cars and two-wheelers in Indonesia [ICCT report]. International Council on Clean Transportation. Link to source: https://theicct.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/09/ID-17-%E2%80%93-LCA-Indonesia_report_final2.pdf 

Montoya-Torres, J., Akizu-Gardoki, O., & Iturrondobeitia, M. (2023). Measuring life-cycle carbon emissions of private transportation in urban and rural settings. Sustainable Cities and Society, 96, Article 104658. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2023.104658

Pan, S., Yu, W., Fulton, L. M., Jung, J., Choi, Y., & Gao, H. O. (2023). Impacts of the large-scale use of passenger electric vehicles on public health in 30 US. metropolitan areas. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 173, Article 113100. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2022.11310

Patil, M., Bandhu Majumdar, B., & Kumar Sahu, P. (2022). A comparative evaluation of the total cost of ownership between electric two-wheelers and motorized two-wheelers from an Indian perspective. Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board, 2676(5), 526–550. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1177/03611981221077087 

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Polanco Vásquez, L. O., Chavarría-Hernández, J. C., Arias Trinidad, A., Ordóñez-López, L. C., Forti Sosa, S., Contreras Pool, P. Y., & Barrera-Cabrera, J. N. (2025). Life cycle assessment of electric and gasoline moto-taxis in Yucatán, México: Impact of battery technology and social considerations. Energy for Sustainable Development, 85, Article 101614. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.esd.2024.101614

Requia, W. J., Mohamed, M., Higgins, C. D., Arain, A., & Ferguson, M. (2018). How clean are electric vehicles? Evidence-based review of the effects of electric mobility on air pollutants, greenhouse gas emissions and human health. Atmospheric Environment, 185, 64–77. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2018.04.040

Schneider, F., Castillo Castro, D. S., Weng, K.-C., Shei, C.-H., & Lin, H.-T. (2023). Comparative life cycle assessment (LCA) on battery electric and combustion engine motorcycles in Taiwan. Journal of Cleaner Production, 406, Article 137060. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2023.137060

Sheng, N., Zhou, X., & Zhou, Y. (2016). Environmental impact of electric motorcycles: Evidence from traffic noise assessment by a building-based data mining technique. Science of The Total Environment, 554–555, 73–82. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.02.148

Szyszkowicz, M., Kousha, T., Castner, J., & Dales, R. (2018). Air pollution and emergency department visits for respiratory diseases: A multi-city case crossover study. Environmental Research, 163, 263–269. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2018.01.043

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Credits

Lead Fellows

  • Heather Jones, Ph.D.

Contributors

  • Ruthie Burrows, Ph.D.

  • James Gerber, Ph.D.

  • Daniel Jasper

  • Alex Sweeney

Internal Reviewers

  • Nina-Francesca Farac, Ph.D.

  • Heather McDiarmid, Ph.D.

  • Amanda D. Smith, Ph.D.

Methods and Supporting Data

Methods and Supporting Data

Comments / Questions

  • Greenhouse gas quantity expressed relative to CO₂ with the same warming impact over 100 years, calculated by multiplying emissions by the 100-yr GWP for the emitted gases.

  • Greenhouse gas quantity expressed relative to CO₂ with the same warming impact over 20 years, calculated by multiplying emissions by the 20-yr GWP for the emitted gases.

  • 8th World Congress on Conservation Agriculture

  • Reducing greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere by preventing or reducing emissions.

  • A liquid with a low pH (below 7).

  • The process of increasing acidity.

  • The extent to which emissions reduction or carbon removal is above and beyond what would have occurred without implementing a particular action or solution.

  • An upper limit on solution adoption based on physical or technical constraints, not including economic or policy barriers. This level is unlikely to be reached and will not be exceeded.

  • The quantity and metric to measure implementation for a particular solution that is used as the reference unit for calculations within that solution.

  • A composting method in which organic waste is processed in freestanding piles that can be aerated actively with forced air or passively by internal convection.

  • The interactions of aerodynamic forces and flexible structures, often including the stucture's control system.

  • A process in which microbes break down organic materials in the presence of oxygen. This process converts food and green waste into nutrient-rich compost.

  • Establishment of new forests in areas that did not historically support forests.

  • Farming practices that work to create socially and ecologically sustainable food production.

  • Addition of trees and shrubs to crop or animal farming systems.

  • Artificial intelligence

  • Spread out the cost of an asset over its useful lifetime.

  • A process in which microorganisms break down organic material in the absence of oxygen. Methane and CO₂ are the main byproducts.

  • A crop that live one year or less from planting to harvest; also called annual.

  • aerated static piles

  • Hardware required to support PV modules and arrays, including racking and mounting structures, wires, and other physical components.

  • Building Automation System(s)

  • Electric power delivered at a steady, around-the-clock rate, to cover power demand that exists at all times. Baseload power is typically supplied by high availability, low operating-cost plants, such as nuclear or geothermal.

  • A liquid with a high pH (above 7).

  • black carbon

  • Solar panels that generate electricity from sunlight captured on both sides, increasing energy output by reflecting light from the ground and surroundings.

  • Made from material of biological origin, such as plants, animals, or other organisms.

  • A renewable energy source generated from organic matter from plants and/or algae.

  • An energy source composed primarily of methane and CO₂ that is produced by microorganisms when organic matter decomposes in the absence of oxygen.

  • Carbon stored in biological matter, including soil, plants, fungi, and plant products (e.g., wood, paper, biofuels). This carbon is sequestered from the atmosphere but can be released through decomposition or burning.

  • Living or dead renewable matter from plants or animals, not including organic material transformed into fossil fuels. Peat, in early decay stages, is partially renewable biomass.

  • Biogas refined to the same quality as natural gas. CO₂ and impurities are removed, and the biomethane can be distributed and used in existing natural gas technologies.
     

  • A type of carbon sequestration that captures carbon from CO₂ via photosynthesis and stores it in soils, sediments, and biomass, distinct from sequestration through chemical or industrial pathways.

  • A synthetic organic compound used to make a type of hard, clear plastic for food and drink packaging and many consumer goods.

  • A climate pollutant, also called soot, produced from incomplete combustion of organic matter, either naturally (wildfires) or from human activities (biomass or fossil fuel burning).

  • A secure, decentralized way of digitally tracking transactions that could be used to improve the transparency and efficiency of carbon markets. 

  • Fixed income debt instruments focused on sustainable ocean projects. Blue bonds work in the same manner as traditional bonds and may be issued by corporations, financial institutions, and governments.

  • A global initiative launched by Germany and the IUCN in 2011 to restore 150 Mha of land by 2020 and 350 Mha by 2030.

  • High-latitude (>50°N or >50°S) climate regions characterized by short growing seasons and cold temperatures.

  • Balance-of-system

  • bisphenol A

  • Revenue from carbon credits reserved for payout to land- and rights-holders in the event of a disturbance such as a fire; similar to insurance scheme.

  • The components of a building that physically separate the indoors from the outdoor environment.

  • Businesses involved in the sale and/or distribution of solution-related equipment and technology, and businesses that want to support adoption of the solution.

  • Compound annual growth rate

  • A chemical reaction involving heating a solid to a high temperature; to make cement clinker, limestone is calcined into lime in a process that requires high heat and produces CO₂.

  • The ratio of the actual electricity an energy technology generates over a period of time to the maximum it could have produced if it operated continuously at full capacity.

  • A four-wheeled passenger vehicle.

  • Average number of people traveling in a car per trip.

  • Technologies that collect CO₂ before it enters the atmosphere, preventing emissions at their source. Collected CO₂ can be used onsite or in new products, or stored long term to prevent release.

  • A greenhouse gas that is naturally found in the atmosphere. Its atmospheric concentration has been increasing due to human activities, leading to warming and climate impacts.

  • Total GHG emissions resulting from a particular action, material, technology, or sector.

  • Amount of GHG emissions released per activity or unit of production. 

  • A marketplace where carbon credits are purchased and sold. One carbon credit represents activities that avoid, reduce, or remove one metric ton of GHG emissions.

  • A colorless, odorless gas released during the incomplete combustion of fuels containing carbon. Carbon monoxide can harm health and be fatal at high concentrations.

  • The time it takes for the emissions reduction from a measure to equal the emissions invested in implementing the measure.

  • Activities or technologies that pull CO₂ out of the atmosphere, including enhancing natural carbon sinks and deploying engineered sinks.

  • Long-term storage of carbon in soils, sediment, biomass, oceans, and geologic formations after removal of CO₂ from the atmosphere or CO₂ capture from industrial and power generation processes.

  • The interconnected pool of dissolved inorganic carbon forms in water. Composed of dissolved CO₂, carbonic acid, bicarbonate ions, and carbonate ions.

  • The stocking rate a pasture can sustain without degrading forage supply or vegetation condition.

  • carbon capture and storage

  • carbon capture, utilization, and storage

  • Cooling degree days

  • A binding ingredient in concrete responsible for most of concrete’s life-cycle emissions. Cement is made primarily of clinker mixed with other mineral components.

  • chlorofluorocarbon

  • Processes that use chemical reactions or heat to break down plastic waste into basic molecular components or feedstocks that can then be used to make new plastic products.

  • Process that uses chemical reactions or heat to break down plastic waste into basic molecular components that can be used to make new plastic products.

  • methane

  • A system in which resources, materials, and products are used for as long as possible through reuse, repair, refurbishment, and recycling.

  • Energy sources that have little to no negative environmental or climate impacts during operation relative to fossil fuel–based energy sources.

  • A factor that warms or cools the planet.

  • Gases or particles that have a planet-warming effect when released to the atmosphere. Some climate pollutants also cause other forms of environmental damage.

  • Areas that have natural buffers from local climate change impacts, offering safe havens for species and ecosystems.

  • A binding ingredient in cement responsible for most of the life-cycle emissions from cement and concrete production.

  • A waste management process where waste is made into the same original product, preserving quality and value so materials can be reused multiple times while keeping resources in continuous use.

  • A system that encompasses both forward supply chains (from producer to consumer) and reverse logistics for reuse, recycling, or proper disposal.

  • Neighbors, volunteer organizations, hobbyists and interest groups, online communities, early adopters, individuals sharing a home, and private citizens seeking to support the solution.

  • A solution that potentially lowers the benefit of another solution through reduced effectiveness, higher costs, reduced or delayed adoption, or diminished global climate impact.

  • The average annual rate at which a value grows over a specified period, assuming profits are reinvested and growth occurs steadily each year.

  • Funding with substantially more generous terms than market loans (typically due to lower interest rates, longer repayment periods, or partial grants) used to support projects with public or development benefits.

  • A farming system that combines reduced tillage, cover crops, and crop rotations.

  • The proportion of water used or applied that is evaporated, transpired, or incorporated into a product and therefore is not returned to the local hydrological system through runoff or leaching.

  • Risk-sharing financial agreements in which two parties (e.g., renewable generator, government) guarantee a fixed price (e.g., electricity price). If market prices fluctuate, one party pays the other the difference.

  • Persistent long, thin clouds that form behind aircraft when water vapor in the exhaust condenses, then freezes into ice crystals at high altitudes. 

  • A measure of the total space cooling demand to maintain an indoor temperature below 24 °C

  • carbon dioxide

  • A  measure standardizing the warming effects of greenhouse gases relative to CO₂. CO₂-eq is calculated as quantity (metric tons) of a particular gas multiplied by its GWP.

  • carbon dioxide equivalent

  • Plant materials left over after a harvest, such as stalks, leaves, and seed husks.

  • A granular material made by crushing broken or waste glass.

  • direct air capture

  • Financial agreements in which government creditors forgive a portion of debt in exchange for specific conservation commitments.

  • The process of cutting greenhouse gas emissions (primarily CO₂) from a particular sector or activity.

  • An industrial process that removes printing ink from used or waste paper fibers, creating clean pulp that can be turned into new paper products.

  • A solution that works slower than gradual solutions and is expected to take longer to reach its full potential.

  • Microbial conversion of nitrate into inert nitrogen gas under low-oxygen conditions, which produces the greenhouse gas nitrous oxide as an intermediate compound.

  • Electronic document that verifies whether a product has been manufactured according to environmental and social standards and/or material origins, environmental impact, and disposal recommendations.

  • Electronic documents that verify whether or not a product has been manufactured according to environmental and social standards and/or material origins, environmental impact, and disposal recommendations.

  • Greenhouse gas emissions produced as a direct result of the use of a technology or practice.

  • Electric power that can be increased, decreased, or turned on/off to match real-time fluctuations in grid conditions. Typically supplied by fast-responding plants such as natural gas, hydroelectric, or battery storage.

  • The inorganic forms of carbon dissolved in seawater. Composed of dissolved CO₂, carbonic acid, bicarbonate ions, and carbonate ions.

  • A system of underground distribution pipes that supply heat from centralized sources to a large number of buildings for space and water heating or industrial use.

  • A window consisting of two glass panes separated by a sealed gap and typically filled with air or an inert gas to improve the heat flow resistance.

  • A waste management system that transforms waste into different products of lower quality and value, making materials harder to recycle again and limiting reuse.

  • Flexible benchmarks derived from independent, publicly available, frequently updated data sets.

  • European Energy Agency

  • Ability of a solution to reduce emissions or remove carbon, expressed in CO₂-eq per installed adoption unit. Effectiveness is quantified per year when the adoption unit is cumulative over time.

  • Enhanced geothermal system

  • Exajoule (one quintillion joules)

  • A process that uses electric current to drive a reaction, such as using electricity to split water molecules into hydrogen and oxygen.

  • Produced by electrolysis.

  • Greenhouse gas emissions accrued over the lifetime of a material or product, including as it is produced, transported, used, and disposed of.

  • Solutions that work faster than gradual solutions, front-loading their impact in the near term.

  • Methane produced by microbes in the digestive tracts of ruminant livestock, such as cattle, sheep and goats.

  • The unintended capture of organisms in intake flows.

  • Environmental Protection Agency

  • Extended Producer Responsibility

  • expanded polystyrene

  • Environmental Research & Education Foundation

  • environmental, social, and governance

  • exchange-traded fund

  • A process triggered by an overabundance of nutrients in water, particularly nitrogen and phosphorus, that stimulates excessive plant and algae growth and can harm aquatic organisms.

  • Electric vehicle

  • The movement of water from the earth’s surface to the atmosphere directly from land or water surfaces (evaporation) and through plant tissues (transpiration).

     

  • The scientific literature that supports our assessment of a solution's effectiveness.

  • A policy framework that assigns responsibility to producers for the end-of-life servicing of their products.

  • A group of human-made molecules that contain fluorine atoms. They are potent greenhouse gases with GWPs that can be hundreds to thousands times higher than CO₂.

  • Food, agriculture, land, and ocean

  • Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations

  • feed conversion ratio

  • The efficiency with which an animal converts feed into increased body mass, measured as the ratio of the weight of the feed given to weight gain. Lower FCR means less feed for the same growth.

  • A policy mechanism that incentivizes renewables through contracts that guarantee a set price for the electricity generated.

  • Raw material inputs for manufacturing, processing, and managing waste.

  • Containing or consisting of iron.

  • A measure of fishing activity over time and area, commonly measured by number of trips, vessel time, or gear deployed.

  • A solar PV system with panels mounted at a constant angle.

  • Glass is manufactured by floating molten glass on a molten tin bath, producing a smooth, flat product with high optical clarity, often used for window applications.

  • food loss and waste

  • Food discarded during pre-consumer supply chain stages, including production, harvest, and processing.

  • Food discarded during pre-consumer supply chain stages, including production, harvest, and processing, along with food discarded wt the retail and consumer stages of the supply chain.

  • Food discarded at the retail and consumer stages of the supply chain.

  • Combustible materials found in Earth's crust that can be burned for energy, including oil, natural gas, and coal. They are formed from decayed organisms through prehistoric geological processes.

  • Free, prior, and informed consent

  • A principled process of working with Indigenous communities that requires consent from Indigenous peoples for any decision, action, or activity that impacts their community and/or lands.

  • Unintentional leaks of gases or vapor into the atmosphere.

  • A group of countries representing the majority of the world's population, trade, and GDP. There are 19 member countries plus the European Union and the African Union

  • Gas collection and control system

  • A design or approach to policy, programs, or activities that addresses the different situations, roles, needs, and interests of women, men, girls, and boys.

  • Manipulating the environment to influence the quantities or impact of climate pollutants in the atmosphere.

  • greenhouse gas

  • Global horizontal irradiance

  • gigajoule or billion joules

  • The glass layers or panes in a window.

  • The intensity of all solar radiant energy on a horizontal surface over a specific time frame, which limits PV power output. Measured as energy per area per year (kWh/m2/yr).

  • A measure of how effectively a gas traps heat in the atmosphere relative to CO₂. GWP converts greenhouse gases into CO₂-eq emissions based on their 20- or 100-year impacts.

  • A solution that has a steady impact on the atmosphere. Effectiveness is expected to be constant over time rather than having a higher impact in the near or long term.

  • A system that uses the slope of a field and furrows, borders, or flooding to apply water without pumping.

  • Hydrogen produced from natural gas, most commonly by combining heated steam with methane. Producing grey hydrogen emits CO₂ and leaks methane. Most hydrogen made today is grey.

  • A fixed income debt instrument focused on sustainable projects. Green bonds work in the same manner as traditional bonds and may be issued by corporations, financial institutions, and governments.

  • A fixed income debt instrument focused on sustainable projects. They work in the same manner as traditional bonds and may be issued by corporations, financial institutions, and governments.

  • Hydrogen gas made through electrolysis using electricity produced onsite using renewable energy sources.

  • The practice of charging more for renewable energy than for conventional energy to cover added costs .

  • Roofs that are designed to be partially or completely covered in vegetation.

  • Biomass discarded during landscaping and gardening.

  • A gas that traps heat in the atmosphere, contributing to climate change.

  • The makeup of electricity generation on a power grid, showing the share contributed by various energy sources (e.g., coal, natural gas, nuclear, wind, solar, hydro) relative to total electricity production.

  • A process by which GHGs dissolved in groundwater are released to the atmosphere when the groundwater is extracted from the aquifer.

  • metric gigatons or billion metric tons

  • global warming potential

  • A low-carbon steel-making technology that uses hydrogen from water, direct reduction of iron, and electric arc furnaces. 

  • hectare

  • household air pollution

  • A sector or process that is exceptionally challenging to decarbonize, often because of a lack of mature technology options.  

  • hydrochlorofluorocarbon

  • Number of years a person is expected to live without disability or other limitations that restrict basic functioning and activity.

  • A measure of the total space heating demand to maintain an indoor temperature above 18 °C

  • A unit of land area comprising 10,000 square meters, roughly equal to 2.5 acres.

  • Hybrid electric car

  • hydrofluorocarbon

  • hydrofluoroolefin

  • hydrofluoroolefin

  • high-income countries

  • Metal waste that is produced at a mill or foundry during the metal production process and recycled internally.

  • Particles and gases released from use of polluting fuels and technologies such as biomass cookstoves that cause poor air quality in and around the home.

  • heating, ventilation, air conditioning, and refrigeration

  • Organic compounds that contain hydrogen and carbon.

  • Human-made F-gases that contain hydrogen, fluorine, and carbon. They typically have short atmospheric lifetimes and GWPs hundreds or thousands times higher than CO₂. 

  • Human-made F-gases that contain hydrogen, fluorine, and carbon, with at least one double bond. They have low GWPs and can be climate-friendly alternatives to HFC refrigerants.

  • A recycling process that separates fibers from contaminants for reuse. Paper or cardboard is mixed with water to break down fibrous materials into pulp.

  • internal combustion engine

  • International Energy Agency

  • Aerobic decomposition of organic waste in a sealed container or bin/bay system. 

  • Greenhouse gas emissions produced as a result of a technology or practice but not directly from its use.

  • A solid block of purified silicon formed by melting and crystallizing raw silicon; it serves as the base material for slicing into wafers used in solar cells.

  • Device used to power vehicles by the intake, compression, combustion, and exhaust of fuel that drives moving parts.

  • The annual discount rate that balances net cash flows for a project over time. Also called IRR, internal rate of return is used to estimate profitability of potential investments.

  • Individuals or institutions willing to lend money in search of a return on their investment.

  • Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

  • Indigenous peoples’ land

  • Integrated pest management.

  • internal rate of return

  • The timing and amount of irrigation water applied.

  • International Union for Conservation of Nature

  • The most comprehensive global list of species threatened with extinction, maintained by the International Union for Conservation of Nature.

  • International agreement adopted in 2016 to phase down the use of high-GWP HFC F-gases over the time frame 2019–2047.

  • A measure of energy equivalent to the energy delivered by 1,000 watts of power over one hour.

  • kiloton or one thousand metric tons

  • kilowatt-hour

  • The intentional or unintentional act of property use crossing ownership boundaries without permission.

  • A land-holding system, e.g. ownership, leasing, or renting. Secure land tenure means farmers or other land users will maintain access to and use of the land in future years.

  • Gases, mainly methane and CO₂, created by the decomposition of organic matter in the absence of oxygen.

  • levelized cost of electricity

  • leak detection and repair

  • Regular monitoring for fugitive methane leaks throughout oil and gas, coal, and landfill sector infrastructure and the modification or replacement of leaking equipment.

  • Relocation of emissions-causing activities outside of a mitigation project area rather than a true reduction in emissions.

  • The rate at which solution costs decrease as adoption increases, based on production efficiencies, technological improvements, or other factors.

  • Percent decrease in costs per doubling of adoption.

  • A metric describing the expected break-even cost of generating electricity per megawatt-hour ($/MWh), combining costs related to capital, operation, and fuel (if used) and dividing by total output over the generator's lifetime.

  • landfill gas

  • Greenhouse gas emissions from the sourcing, production, use, and disposal of a technology or practice.

  • A process that converts biomass, plastics, or other solid wastes into liquid fuel or chemicals.

  • The total weight of an organism before any meat processing.

  • low- and middle-income countries

  • liquefied petroleum gas

  • land use change

  • A measure of the amount of light produced by a light source per energy input.

  • live weight

  • Mobility as a Service

  • marginal abatement cost curve

  • Livestock grazing practices that strategically manage livestock density, grazing intensity, and timing. Also called improved grazing, these practices have environmental, soil health, and climate benefits, including enhanced soil carbon sequestration.

  • Intertidal coastal wetlands with salt-tolerant trees and shrubs found in tropical and subtropical regions.

  • A tool to measure and compare the financial cost and abatement benefit of individual actions based on the initial and operating costs, revenue, and emission reduction potential.

  • Periods of unusually warm ocean temperatures that typically last from days to months and can affect large areas of the ocean.

  • Defined by the International Union for Conservation of Nature as: "A clearly defined geographical space, recognised, dedicated and managed, through legal or other effective means, to achieve the long-term conservation of nature with associated ecosystem services and cultural values." References to PAs here also include other effective area-based conservation measures defined by the IUCN. 

  • The transfer of economic activity or environmental impact from one area to another as a result of conservation activities, often having the effect of reducing or offsetting intended benefits.

  • The transfer of economic activity or environmental impact from one location to another as a result of conservation activities, often having the effect of reducing or offsetting intended benefits.

  • A facility that receives recyclable waste from residential, commercial, and industrial sources; separates, processes, and prepares them; and then sells them to manufacturers for reuse in new products.

  • A measure of energy equivalent to the energy delivered by one million watts of power over one hour.

  • A greenhouse gas with a short lifetime and high GWP that can be produced through a variety of mechanisms including the breakdown of organic matter.

  • A measure of mass equivalent to 1,000 kilograms (~2,200 lb), also known as tonne.

  • million hectares

  • The natural process by which microbes convert matter to energy, often producing CO₂ or other GHGs as a byproduct.

  • Soils mostly composed of inorganic materials formed through the breakdown of rocks. Most soils are mineral soils, and they generally have less than 20% organic matter by weight.

  • A localized electricity system that independently generates and distributes power. Typically serving limited geographic areas, mini-grids can operate in isolation or interconnected with the main grid.

  • Reduce adverse impact of

  • A reduction in adverse impact

  • megajoule or one million joules

  • Digital platform that integrates transport modes such as public transit, carpooling, and bike sharing into a single service, allowing users to plan, book, and pay for multimodal trips through one application.

  • Percent of trips made by different passenger and freight transportation modes.

  • A condition of being diseased, unhealthy, or injured.

  • Marine Protected Area

  • materials recovery facility

  • Municipal solid waste

  • megaton or million metric tons

  • Materials discarded from residential and commercial sectors, including organic waste, glass, metals, plastics, paper, and cardboard.

  • megawatt

  • Megawatt-hour

  • micro wind turbine

  • square meter kelvins per watt (a measure of thermal resistance, also called R-value)

  • nitrous oxide

  • The enclosed housing at the top of a wind turbine tower that contains the main mechanical and electrical components of the turbine.

  • A commitment from a country to reduce national emissions and/or sequester carbon in alignment with global climate goals under the Paris Agreement, including plans for adapting to climate impacts.

  • A gaseous form of hydrocarbons consisting mainly of methane.

  • Chemicals found in nature that are used for cooling and heating, such as CO₂, ammonia, and some hydrocarbons. They have low GWPs and are ozone friendly, making them climate-friendly refrigerants.

  • The rate of primary production for photosynthetic organisms, excluding the carbon they respire for their own metabolic processes.

  • The rate at which photosynthetic organisms convert carbon dioxide into organic matter, minus the carbon they respire for their own metabolic processes.

  • Microbial conversion of ammonia or ammonium to nitrite and then to nitrate under aerobic conditions.

  • A group of air pollutant molecules composed of nitrogen and oxygen, including NO and NO₂.

  • A greenhouse gas produced during fossil fuel combustion and agricultural and industrial processes. N₂O is hundreds of times more potent than CO₂ at trapping atmospheric heat, and it depletes stratospheric ozone.

  • Metals or alloys that do not contain significant amounts of iron.

  • Social welfare organizations, civic leagues, social clubs, labor organizations, business associations, and other not-for-profit organizations.

  • A material or energy source that relies on resources that are finite or not naturally replenished at the rate of consumption, including fossil fuels like coal, oil, and natural gas.

  • nitrogen oxides

  • Net primary production

  • nitrous oxide

  • The process of increasing the acidity of seawater, primarily caused by absorption of CO₂ from the atmosphere.

  • Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development

  • An agreement between a seller who will produce future goods and a purchaser who commits to buying them, often used as project financing for producers prior to manufacturing.

  • Waste made of plant or animal matter, including food waste and green waste.

  • Systems to connect buyers with a network of smallholder farmers to stabilize supply and demand (sometimes called "contract farming.”

  • organic waste

  • Protected area

  • Protected Area

  • A certification that verifies a metric ton of packaging waste has been recovered and is being exported for reprocessing.

  • A certification that verifies a metric ton of packaging waste has been recovered and reprocessed.

  • Productive use of wet or rewetted peatlands that does not disturb the peat layer, such as for hunting, gathering, and growing wetland-adapted crops for food, fiber, and energy.

  • A legally protected area that lacks effective enforcement or management, resulting in minimal to no conservation benefit.

  • Airborne particles composed of solids and liquids.

  • A measure of transporting one passenger over a distance of one kilometer.

  • Incentive payments to landowners or managers to conserve natural resources and promote healthy ecological functions or ecosystem services.

  • Small, hardened pieces of plastic made from cooled resin that can be melted to make new plastic products.

  • Transitional zone between urban and rural areas that combines features of both such as housing, farms, lower-density development, and mixed land uses.

  • The longevity of any greenhouse gas emission reductions or removals. Solution impacts are considered permanent if the risk of reversing the positive climate impacts is low within 100 years.

  • Packaging waste export recovery note

  • High-efficiency solar cells with a traditional silicon base and a thin-film perovskite layer on top that allows the combined cell to capture more energy without significantly increasing its size.

  • Advanced solar cells combining perovskite and silicon layers to capture more of the solar spectrum, achieving higher efficiency than conventional silicon cells.

  • Payments for ecosystem services

  • A mixture of hydrocarbons, small amounts of other organic compounds, and trace amounts of metals used to produce products such as fuels or plastics.

  • Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances, a class of synthetic chemicals that do not degrade easily in the environment. They can pollute the environment and can have negative impacts on human health.

  • A measure of the acidity (pH<7) or alkalinity (pH>7) of a solution.

  • Reduce the use of a material or practice over time.

  • Eliminate the use of a material or practice over time.

  • Plug-in hybrid electric car

  • Private, national, or multilateral organizations dedicated to providing aid through in-kind or financial donations.

  • A chemical or material that initiates or accelerates a chemical reaction when exposed to light without being consumed.

  • An atmospheric reaction among sunlight, VOCs, and nitrogen oxide that leads to ground-level ozone formation. Ground-level ozone, a component of smog, harms human health and the environment.

  • The process by which certain materials, such as those in solar cells, convert sunlight into electricity by releasing electrons.

  • The process by which sunlight is converted into electricity. When light hits certain materials, such as those in solar panels, it mobilizes electrons, creating an electric current.

  • A family of synthetic organic compounds used to make plastics softer, more flexible, and durable. They are added to a wide range of plastics for consumer and industrial uses.

  • polyisocyanurate

  • The adjustment of turbine blade angles around their long axis in which a control system rotates blades slightly forward or backward to regulate wind capture and optimize electricity generation.

  • passenger kilometer

  • particulate matter

  • Particulate matter 2.5 micrometers or less in diameter that can harm human health when inhaled.

  • Elected officials and their staff, bureaucrats, civil servants, regulators, attorneys, and government affairs professionals.

  • System in a vehicle that generates power and delivers it to the wheels. It typically includes an engine and/or motor, transmission, driveshaft, and differential.

  • Purchase Power Agreement.

  • Purchase Power Agreements

  • People who most directly interface with a solution and/or determine whether the solution is used and/or available. 

  • A chemical reaction that creates a solid from a solution.

  • A substance that is the starting material for a chemical reaction that forms a different substance.

  • Extraction of naturally occurring resources from the Earth, including mining, logging, and oil and gas refining. These resources can be used in raw or minimally processed forms to produce materials.

  • The process of converting inorganic matter, including carbon dioxide, into organic matter (biomass), primarily by photosynthetic organisms such as plants and algae.

  • Packaging waste recovery note

  • A device that controls indoor temperature according to user-defined schedules or conditions.

  • Defined by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature as "A clearly defined geographical space, recognised, dedicated and managed, through legal or other effective means, to achieve the long-term conservation of nature with associated ecosystem services and cultural values". References to PAs here also include other effective area-based conservation measures defined by the IUCN. 

  • A process that separates and breaks down wood and other raw materials into fibers that form pulp, the base ingredient for making paper products.

  • polyurethane

  • Long-term contract between a company (the buyer) and a renewable energy producer (the seller).

  • Long-term contracts between a company (the buyer) and a renewable energy producer (the seller).

  • photovoltaic

  • Petawatt-hour, equal to 1 billion MWh

  • research and development

  • An atom, molecule, or ion that contains at least one unpaired valence electron, making it highly reactive and often short-lived.

  • A situation in which improvements in efficiency or savings lead to consumers increasing consumption, partially or fully offsetting or exceeding the emissions or cost benefits.

  • renewable energy certificate

  • Chemical or mixture used for cooling and heating in refrigeration, air conditioning, and heat pump equipment. Refrigerants absorb and release heat as they move between states under changing pressure.

  • The amount of refrigerant needed for a particular refrigeration, air conditioning, or heat pump system.

  • A group of approaches to farming and ranching that emphasizes enhancing the health of soil by restoring its carbon content and providing other benefits to the farm and surrounding ecosystem.

  • A solution that can increase the beneficial impact of another solution through increased effectiveness, lower costs, improved adoption, enhanced global climate impact, and/or other benefits to people and nature.

  • A material or energy source that relies on naturally occuring and replenishing resources such as plant matter, wind, or sunlight.

  • A market-based instrument that tracks ownership of renewable energy generation.

  • The moldable form of raw plastic material, created by melting down waste or virgin plastics and serving as the building block for creating new plastic goods.

  • The process of moving items from end users (e.g., consumers) back to the sellers or manufacturers to reuse, recycle, or dispose of. This can include transportation, cleaning, sorting, and more.

  • Hiring a vehicle to take a passenger or passengers to a particular destination.

  • U.N. treaties to combat climate change, biodiversity loss, and desertification. They include the U.N. Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), and the U.N. Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD).

  • A class of animals with complex stomachs that can digest grass. Most grazing livestock are ruminants including cows, sheep, and goats along with several other species.

  • sustainable aviation fuel

  • A wetland ecosystem regularly flooded by tides and containing salt-tolerant plants, such as grasses and herbs.

  • Intertidal coastal wetlands with salt-tolerant plants.

  • An ecosystem characterized by low-density tree cover that allows for a grass subcanopy.

  • Very large or small numbers are formatted in scientific notation. A positive exponent multiplies the number by powers of ten; a negative exponent divides the number by powers of ten.

  • Seasonal coefficient of performance

  • Sustainable Development Goals

  • Average units of heat energy released for every unit of electrical energy consumed, used to measure heat pump efficiency.

  • A single pane window (glass and frame) added to an existing single-glazed window, converting the unit into double glazing, with each pane independently operable.

  • A practice in which multiple utility companies own and operate high-voltage power lines, sharing both costs and benefits.

  • A window consisting of one glass pane without any additional insulating layers.

  • Small-scale family farmers and other food producers, often with limited resources, usually in the tropics. The average size of a smallholder farm is two hectares (about five acres).

  • soil organic carbon

  • The process of using direct, real-world observations to verify, validate, and/or improve data and models about social systems, often using in-person observations in the field.

  • Carbon stored in soils, including both organic (from decomposing plants and microbes) and inorganic (from carbonate-containing minerals).

  • Carbon stored in soils in organic forms (from decomposing plants and microbes). Soil organic carbon makes up roughly half of soil organic matter by weight.

  • Biologically derived matter in soils, including living, dead, and decayed plant and microbial tissues. Soil organic matter is roughly half carbon on a dry-weight basis.

  • A measure of the intensity of solar radiant energy on a surface, measured in watts per square meter (W/m2) or power per unit area.

  • Reducing global warming by increasing how much of the sun's radiation is reflected back to space and/or decreasing how much of the Earth's radiative heat is trapped in the atmosphere. 

  • A material's ability to reflect solar radiation incident on its surface, often reported as a fraction or percentage.

  • soil organic matter

  • A substance that takes up another liquid or gas substance, either by absorbtion or adsorption.

  • sulfur oxides

  • sulfur dioxide

  • The rate at which a climate solution physically affects the atmosphere after being deployed. At Project Drawdown, we use three categories: emergency brake (fastest impact), gradual, or delayed (slowest impact).

  • Climate regions between latitudes 23.4° to 35° above and below the equator characterized by warm summers and mild winters.

  • A polluting gas produced primarily from burning fossil fuels and industrial processes that directly harms the environment and human health.

  • A group of gases containing sulfur and oxygen that predominantly come from burning fossil fuels. They contribute to air pollution, acid rain, and respiratory health issues.

  • Processes, people, and resources involved in producing and delivering a product from supplier to end customer, including material acquisition.

  • Sport utility vehicle

  • A mixture of hydrogen, carbon monoxide, and other gases, used to produce chemicals like ammonia and methanol, or as a synthetic fuel made from non-fossil feedstocks, including biomass and waste.

  • metric ton

  • metric tons

  • Technology developers, including founders, designers, inventors, R&D staff, and creators seeking to overcome technical or practical challenges.

  • Climate regions between 35° to 50° above and below the equator characterized by moderate mean annual temperatures and distinct seasons, with warm summers and cold winters.

  • A measure of energy equivalent to the energy delivered by one trillion watts of power over one hour.

  • trifluoroacetic acid

  • trifluoroacetic acid

  • A measurement indicating the ability of a material to release heat after it has been absorbed.

  • A measure of how well a material prevents heat flow, often called R-value or RSI-value for insulation. A higher R-value means better thermal performance.

  • A measure of the rate of heat flow or heat transfer through a material or building component. A lower U-value means better thermal performance.

  • Individuals with an established audience for their work, including public figures, experts, journalists, and educators.

  • Charges for disposal of materials paid to facility operators. Fees can be charged per ton of waste disposed or based on economic indicators such as the Consumer Price Index.

  • A solar PV systems with panels that move automatically to follow the sun’s path, maximizing energy capture and improving efficiency over fixed systems.

  • A window consisting of three panes of glass separated by two insulating inert gas-filled layers, providing more heat flow resistance than single or double glazing.

  • Low-latitude (23.4°S to 23.4°N) climate regions near the Equator characterized by year-round high temperatures and distinct wet and dry seasons.

  • Terawatt, equal to 1,000 gigawatts

  • terawatt-hour

  • United Nations

  • United Nations Environment Programme

  • U.S. Composting Council

  • Self-propelled machine for transporting passengers or freight on roads.

  • A measure of one vehicle traveling a distance of one kilometer.

  • Aerobic decomposition of organic waste by earthworms and microorganisms.

  • vehicle kilometer

  • volatile organic compound

  • Gases made of organic, carbon-based molecules that are readily released into the air from other solid or liquid materials. Some VOCs are greenhouse gases or can harm human health.

  • watt (a measure of power or energy transfer.)

  • Watts per square meter Kelvin

  • A thin, flat slice of silicon cut from an ingot and processed to create individual solar cells that convert sunlight into electricity.

  • Landscape waste, storm debris, wood processing residues, and recovered post-consumer wood.

  • A framework for waste management that ranks options by their sustainability: 1) prevent (do not purchase unnecessary waste), 2) reduce, 3) reuse, 4) recycle, 5) recover, 6) dispose.

  • A measure of power equal to one joule per second.

  • World Conservation Monitoring Centre

  • Using strategies such as insulation, air sealing, ventilation, and moisture control to upgrade a building’s exterior structure, making indoors more comfortable and energy efficient.

  • Aerobic decomposition of organic waste in long, narrow rows called windrows. Windrows are generally twice as long as they are wide.

  • A subset of forest ecosystems that may have sparser canopy cover,  smaller-stature trees, and/or trees characterized by basal branching rather than a single main stem.

  • extruded polystyrene

  • The rotation of the nacelle (the enclosed housing at the top of a wind turbine tower that contains the main mechanical and electrical components of the turbine) so that the rotor blades are always facing directly into the wind.

  • year-over-year

  • year

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