Cut Emissions and Remove Carbon FALO & Nature-Based Carbon Removal Protect & Manage Ecosystems

Protect Grasslands & Savannas

Highly Recommended
Boreal grassland

This solution focuses on the legal protection of grassland and savanna ecosystems through the establishment of protected areas (PAs), which are managed with the primary goal of conserving nature, and land tenure for Indigenous peoples. These protections reduce grassland degradation, which preserves carbon stored in soils and vegetation and enables continued carbon sequestration by healthy grasslands.

This solution only includes non-coastal grasslands and savannas on mineral soils in areas that do not naturally support forests. Salt marshes are included in the Protect Coastal Wetlands solution, grasslands on peat soils are included in the Protect Peatlands solution, grasslands that are the product of deforestation are included in the Restore Forests solution, and grasslands that have been converted to other uses are included in the Restore Grasslands and Savannas solution.

Last updated November 5, 2025

Solution Basics

ha of grassland or savanna protected

t CO₂-eq (100-yr)/unit/yr
0.9
units
Current 3.386×10⁸ 03.386×10⁸3.731×10⁸
Achievable (Low to High)

Climate Impact

Gt CO₂-eq (100-yr)/yr
Current 0.305 0.3050.336
US$ per t CO₂-eq
-2
Emergency Brake

CO₂,  N₂O

Solution Basics

ha of grassland or savanna protected

t CO₂-eq (100-yr)/unit/yr
0.54
units
Current 1.722×10⁸ 03.617×10⁸5.064×10⁸
Achievable (Low to High)

Climate Impact

Gt CO₂-eq (100-yr)/yr
Current 0.093 0.1950.273
US$ per t CO₂-eq
-2
Emergency Brake

CO₂,  N₂O

Solution Basics

ha of grassland or savanna protected

t CO₂-eq (100-yr)/unit/yr
0.13
units
Current 2.93×10⁸ 03.132×10⁸4.385×10⁸
Achievable (Low to High)

Climate Impact

Gt CO₂-eq (100-yr)/yr
Current 0.037 0.0390.055
US$ per t CO₂-eq
-2
Emergency Brake

CO₂,  N₂O

Solution Basics

ha of grassland or savanna protected

t CO₂-eq (100-yr)/unit/yr
0.06
units
Current 5.826×10⁸ 05.826×10⁸7.059×10⁸
Achievable (Low to High)

Climate Impact

Gt CO₂-eq (100-yr)/yr
Current 0.033 0.0330.04
US$ per t CO₂-eq
-2
Emergency Brake

CO₂,  N₂O

Additional Benefits

181,182
183,184,188
    183
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    • 186
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    • 188
189,191,192

Overview

Grasslands, also called steppes (Europe and Asia), pampas (South America), and prairies (North America), are ecosystems dominated by herbaceous plants that have relatively low tree or shrub cover. Savannas are ecosystems characterized by low-density tree cover that allows for a grass subcanopy (Bardgett et al., 2021; Parente et al., 2024). Grasslands and savannas span arid to mesic climates from the tropics to the tundra; many depend on periodic fires and grazing by large herbivores. The dataset used to define grassland extent for this analysis classifies areas with sparse vegetation, including some shrublands, deserts, and tundra, as grasslands (Parente et al., 2024), but excludes planted and intensively managed livestock pastures. Hereafter we refer to all of these ecosystems, including savannas, as “grasslands.” 

Historically, grasslands covered up to 40% of global land area, depending on the definition used (Bardgett et al., 2021; Parente et al., 2024; Suttie et al., 2005). An estimated 46% of temperate grasslands and 24% of tropical grasslands have been converted to cropland or lost to afforestation or development (Hoekstra et al., 2004). Nearly half of remaining grasslands are estimated to be degraded due to over- or undergrazing, woody plant encroachment, climate change, invasive species, addition of fertilizers or legumes for forage production, and changing fire regimes (Bardgett et al., 2021; Briggs et al., 2005; Gang et al., 2014; Ratajczak et al., 2012). 

Grasslands store carbon primarily in soils and below-ground biomass (Bai & Cotrufo, 2022). A large fraction of the carbon that grasses take up is allocated to root growth, which over time is incorporated into soil organic matter (Bai & Cotrufo, 2022). When native vegetation is removed and land is tilled to convert grasslands to croplands, carbon from biomass and soils is lost as CO₂.  

Estimates of total carbon stocks in grasslands range from 388–1,257 Gt CO₂‑eq (Conant et al., 2017; Goldstein et al., 2020; Poeplau, 2021). Soil carbon generally persists over long timescales and takes decades to rebuild, with one study estimating that 132 Gt CO₂‑eq in grasslands is vulnerable to loss, and that 25 Gt CO₂‑eq of that would be irrecoverable over a 30-year timeframe (Goldstein et al., 2020). Our analysis did not quantify the impacts of grazing or woody plant encroachment on grassland carbon stocks, which can be mixed, though grazing is discussed further in the Improve Livestock Grazing solution (Barger et al., 2011; Conant et al., 2017; Jackson et al., 2002; Stanley et al., 2024). 

Long-term legal protection of grasslands through PAs and Indigenous peoples’ land tenure reduces conversion and therefore avoids conversion-related pulses of GHG emissions from plowing soils and removing biomass. We consider grasslands to be protected if they are 1) formally designated as PAs (United Nations Environment Programme World Conservation Monitoring Centre [UNEP-WCMC] and International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources [IUCN], 2024), or 2) mapped as Indigenous peoples’ lands (IPLs) by Garnett et al. (2018) (Appendix). PAs vary in their allowed uses, ranging from strict wilderness preserves to sustainable-use areas that allow for some natural resource extraction; all levels were included in this analysis (UNEP-WCMC and IUCN, 2024). 

IPLs and PAs reduce, but do not eliminate, ecosystem loss (Baragwanath et al., 2020; Blackman & Viet 2018; Li et al., 2024; McNicol et al., 2023; Sze et al. 2022; Wolf et al., 2023; Wade et al., 2020). Improving management to further reduce land use change within PAs and ensure ecologically appropriate grazing and fire regimes is a critical component of grassland protection (Jones et al., 2018; Meng et al., 2023; Vijay et al., 2018; Visconti et al., 2019; Watson et al., 2014). Additionally, market-based strategies and other policies can complement legal protection by reducing incentives for grassland conversion (e.g., Garett et al., 2019; Golub et al., 2021; Heilmayr et al., 2020; Lambin et al., 2018; Levy et al., 2023; Macdonald et al., 2024; Marin et al., 2022; Villoria et al., 2022; West et al., 2023). Our analyses are based on legal protection because the impact of market-based strategies is difficult to quantify, but these strategies will be further discussed in an additional appendix (coming soon).

Impact Calculator

Adjust effectiveness and adoption using range sliders to see resulting climate impact potential.

Effectiveness

0.9
t CO2-eq/ha of grassland or savanna protected/yr

Adoption

3.386×10⁸
ha of grassland or savanna protected
Low
3.386×10⁸
High
3.731×10⁸
3.386×10⁸
current
Achievable Range

Climate Impact

0.30
Gt CO₂-eq/yr (100-yr)
05
which is the equivalent of
0.52%
of global emissions
Adjust effectiveness and adoption using range sliders to see resulting climate impact potential.

Effectiveness

0.54
t CO2-eq/ha of grassland or savanna protected/yr

Adoption

1.722×10⁸
ha of grassland or savanna protected
Low
3.617×10⁸
High
5.064×10⁸
1.722×10⁸
current
Achievable Range

Climate Impact

0.09
Gt CO₂-eq/yr (100-yr)
05
which is the equivalent of
0.16%
of global emissions
Adjust effectiveness and adoption using range sliders to see resulting climate impact potential.

Effectiveness

0.13
t CO2-eq/ha of grassland or savanna protected/yr

Adoption

2.93×10⁸
ha of grassland or savanna protected
Low
3.132×10⁸
High
4.385×10⁸
2.93×10⁸
current
Achievable Range

Climate Impact

0.04
Gt CO₂-eq/yr (100-yr)
05
which is the equivalent of
0.06%
of global emissions
Adjust effectiveness and adoption using range sliders to see resulting climate impact potential.

Effectiveness

0.06
t CO2-eq/ha of grassland or savanna protected/yr

Adoption

5.826×10⁸
ha of grassland or savanna protected
Low
5.826×10⁸
High
7.059×10⁸
5.826×10⁸
current
Achievable Range

Climate Impact

0.03
Gt CO₂-eq/yr (100-yr)
05
which is the equivalent of
0.06%
of global emissions

The Details

Current State

We estimated that protecting 1 ha of grasslands avoids 0.06–0.90 t CO₂‑eq/yr, with emissions reductions tending to be higher in boreal and temperate regions than tropical and subtropical regions (100-yr GWP; Table 1a–d; Appendix).

We estimated effectiveness as the avoided emissions attributable to the reduction in grassland conversion conferred by protection (Equation 1; Appendix), assuming that converted grasslands are used as croplands due to data constraints. Although some grasslands are converted to intensively managed pastures or urban development, we assumed that the total land area converted to infrastructure is relatively small and emissions associated with conversion to planted pastures are comparable to those from conversion to cropland.

We aggregated estimates of avoided grassland conversion attributable to PAs from Li et al. (2024) to the biome level (Grassland lossavoided), then multiplied the result by the total emissions over 30 years from 1 ha of grassland converted to cropland. These emissions include the change in biomass and soil carbon on conversion to cropland (Carbonemissions), 30 years of lost carbon sequestration potential (Carbonuptake), and nitrous oxide emissions associated with soil carbon loss, which is a small component of total emissions (see Appendix for details; Chang et al. 2021; Huang et al., 2024; Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [IPCC] 2019; Poggio et al., 2021; Spawn et al., 2020).

Equation 1.

\[Effectiveness=(Grassland\text{ }loss_{avoided}) \times (Carbon_{emissions} + Carbon_{uptake}) \]

The effectiveness of grassland protection as defined here reflects only a small percentage of the carbon stored in grasslands because we accounted for the likelihood that the grassland would be converted without protection. Grassland protection is particularly impactful for areas at high risk of conversion.

Table 1a–d. Effectiveness of grassland protection at avoiding emissions and sequestering carbon. Regional differences in values are driven by variation in carbon stocks, baseline rates of grassland conversion, and the effectiveness of PAs at reducing conversion.

Unit: t CO₂‑eq (100-yr basis)/ha/yr

Estimate 0.90

Unit: t CO₂‑eq (100-yr basis)/ha/yr

Estimate 0.54

Unit: t CO₂‑eq (100-yr basis)/ha/yr

Estimate 0.13

Unit: t CO₂‑eq (100-yr basis)/ha/yr

Estimate 0.06

The costs of grassland protection include up-front costs of land acquisition and ongoing costs of management and enforcement. The market price of land reflects the opportunity cost of not using the land for other purposes, such as agriculture or urban development. Data related to the costs of grassland protection are very limited. 

We estimated that grassland protection provides a net cost savings of approximately US$0.53/ha/yr, or US$1.58/t CO₂‑eq avoided (Table 2). This estimate reflects global averages rather than regionally specific values, and some data are not specific to grasslands. Costs and revenues are highly variable across regions, depending on the costs of land and enforcement and the potential for tourism. 

Dienerstein et al. (2024) estimated the initial cost of establishing a PA for 60 high-biodiversity ecoregions. Amongst the 20 regions that contain grasslands, the median acquisition cost was US$897/ha, which we amortized over 30 years. Costs of PA maintenance were estimated at US$9–17/ha/yr (Bruner et al., 2004; Waldron et al., 2020), though these estimates were not specific to grasslands. Additionally, these estimates reflect the costs of effective enforcement and management, but many existing PAs lack adequate funds for effective enforcement (Adams et al., 2019; Barnes et al., 2018; Burner et al., 2004). 

Protecting grasslands can generate revenue through increased tourism. Waldron et al. (2020) estimated that, across all ecosystems, tourism revenues directly attributable to PA establishment were US$43 ha/yr, not including downstream revenues from industries that benefit from increased tourism. Inclusion of a tourism multiplier would substantially increase the estimated economic benefits of grassland protection.

Table 2. Cost per unit of climate impact for grassland protection. Negative value indicates cost savings.

Unit: 2023 US$/t CO₂‑eq , 100-yr basis

median -1.58

A learning curve is defined here as falling costs with increased adoption. The costs of grassland protection do not fall with increasing adoption, so there is no learning curve for this solution.

The term speed of action refers to how quickly a climate solution physically affects the atmosphere after it is deployed. This is separate from the speed of deployment, which is the pace at which solutions are adopted.

At Project Drawdown, we define the speed of action for each climate solution as emergency brake, gradual, or delayed.

Protect Grasslands is an EMERGENCY BRAKE climate solution. It reduces pulses of emissions from the conversion of grasslands, offering the potential to deliver a more rapid impact than gradual and delayed solutions. Because emergency brake solutions can deliver their climate benefits quickly, they can help accelerate our efforts to address dangerous levels of climate change. For this reason, they are a high priority.

Adoption

A total of 555 Mha of grasslands (excluding grasslands on peat soils, grasslands that are also coastal wetlands, and grasslands created through deforestation) are currently located within PAs, and an additional 832 Mha are located on IPLs not classified as PAs (Table 3e). That means that ~48% of grasslands are under some form of protection globally, with 6% in strict PAs, 13% in non-strict PAs, and 29% on IPLs that are not also PAs. As of 2023, tropical regions had the largest extent of protected grasslands (583 Mha), followed by boreal regions (339 Mha), and subtropical regions (293 Mha). In temperate regions, only 24% of grasslands (172 Mha) were under any form of protection (Table 3a–d).

Table 3a–e. Grassland under protection by biome (circa 2023). Estimates are provided for three different forms of protection: “strict” protection, including IUCN classes I and II; “non-strict” protection, including all other IUCN categories; and IPLs outside of PAs. Regional values may not sum to global totals due to rounding.

Unit: ha protected

Strict PAs 52,564,000
Non-strict PAs 82,447,000
IPLs 203,579,000

Unit: ha protected

Strict PAs 30,242,000
Non-strict PAs 51,033,000
IPLs 90,973,000

Unit: ha protected

Strict PAs 31,949,000
Non-strict PAs 83,745,000
IPLs 177,301,000

Unit: ha protected

Strict PAs 56,233,000
Non-strict PAs 166,356,000
IPLs 359,997,000

Unit: ha protected

Strict PAs 170,988,000
Non-strict PAs 383,581,000
IPLs 831,850,000

We calculated the annual rate of new grassland protection based on the year of PA establishment for areas established in 2000–2020. The median annual increase in grassland protection was 8.1 Mha (mean 11.4 Mha; Table 4e). This represents a roughly 1.5%/yr increase in grasslands within PAs, or protection of an additional 0.3%/yr of total global grasslands. Grassland protection has proceeded more quickly in tropical regions (median increase of 4.0 Mha/yr) than in other climate zones (median increases of 1.2–1.6 Mha/yr) (Table 4a–d). 

Table 4a–e. Adoption trend for grassland protection in PAs of any IUCN class (2000–2020). The 25th and 75th percentiles reflect only interannual variance (ha grassland protected/yr). IPLs are not included in this analysis due to a lack of data.

Unit: ha grassland protected/yr

25th percentile 659,000
median (50th percentile) 1,338,000
mean 2,152,000
75th percentile 3,007,000

Unit: ha grassland protected/yr

25th percentile 692,000
median (50th percentile) 1,178,000
mean 1,728,000
75th percentile 1,715,000

Unit: ha grassland protected/yr

25th percentile 940,000
median (50th percentile) 1,580,000
mean 2,791,000
75th percentile 3,226,000

Unit: ha grassland protected/yr

25th percentile 2,628,000
median (50th percentile) 4,044,000
mean 4,711,000
75th percentile 5,774,000

Unit: ha grassland protected/yr

25th percentile 4,919,000
median (50th percentile) 8,140,000
mean 11,382,000
75th percentile 13,722,000

Figure 1. Trend in grassland protection by climate zone (2000-2020) in terms of total hectares protected (left) and the percent of the current adoption ceiling protected (right). These values reflect only the area located within PA. Grasslands located in IPLs, which were not included in the calculation of the adoption trend due to a lack of data, are excluded. Data from Project Drawdown.

Including grasslands that are currently protected, we estimated that there are approximately 2,891 Mha of natural grasslands that are not counted in a different solution (Table 5e). This ceiling includes 1,505 Mha that are not currently under any form of protection. This includes 533 Mha of eligible grasslands in boreal regions, 723 Mha in temperate regions, 626 Mha in the subtropics, and 1,008 Mha in the tropics (Table 5a–d). 

To develop these estimates, we relied on the global grassland map from Parente et al. (2024), excluded areas that were included in the Protect Forests, Protect Peatlands, and Protect Coastal Wetlands solutions, and excluded areas that were historically forested according to the Terrestrial Ecoregions of The World dataset (Olson et al., 2001; Appendix). While it is not socially, politically, or economically realistic that all remaining grasslands could be protected, these values represent the technical upper limit to adoption of this solution.

Table 5a–e. Adoption ceiling: upper limit for adoption of legal protection of grasslands by biome. Values may not sum to global totals due to rounding. 

Unit: ha protected

Estimate 533,033,000

Unit: ha protected

Estimate 723,429,000

Unit: ha protected

Estimate 626,474,000

Unit: ha protected

Estimate 1,008,375,000

Unit: ha protected

Estimate 2,891,311,000

We assigned a low achievable level of a minimum of 50% of grasslands in each climate zone (Table 6a–e). For boreal and tropical regions, in which 64% and 58%, respectively, of grasslands are already protected, we assumed no change in the area under protection (Table 6a, d). For temperate areas, the low achievable target reflects an increase of 189 Mha, or more than a doubling of the current PA extent (Table 6b). In subtropical zones, this target reflects an additional 20 Mha under protection (Table 6c). We assigned a high achievable level of 70% of grasslands in each climate zone, reflecting an additional 637 Mha of protected grasslands globally, or a 46% increase in the current PA extent (Table 6a–e).

Table 6a–e. Range of achievable adoption of grassland protection by biome.

Unit: ha protected

Current Adoption 338,590,000
Achievable – Low 338,590,000
Achievable – High 373,123,000
Adoption ceiling 533,033,000

Unit: ha protected

Current Adoption 172,248,000
Achievable – Low 361,715,000
Achievable – High 506,400,000
Adoption ceiling 723,429,000

Unit: ha protected

Current Adoption 292,995,000
Achievable – Low 313,237,000
Achievable – High 438,532,000
Adoption ceiling 626,474,000

Unit: ha protected

Current Adoption 582,586,000
Achievable – Low 582,586,000
Achievable – High 705,863,000
Adoption ceiling 1,008,375,000

Unit: ha protected

Current Adoption 1,386,419,000
Achievable – Low 1,596,128,000
Achievable – High 2,023,918,000
Adoption ceiling 2,891,311,000

Impacts

We estimated that PAs currently reduce GHG emissions from grassland conversion by 0.468 Gt CO₂‑eq/yr (Table 7a–e). Achievable levels of grassland protection have the potential to reduce emissions 0.572–0.704 Gt CO₂‑eq/yr, with a technical upper bound of 1.006 Gt CO₂‑eq/yr (Table 7a–e). This indicates that further emissions reductions of 0.105–0.237 Gt CO₂‑eq/yr are achievable. For these benefits to be realized, grazing, fire, and woody plant management must be responsive to local grassland needs and compatible with the maintenance of carbon stocks. The solutions Improve Livestock Grazing and Deploy Silvopasture address the climate impacts of some aspects of grassland management.

Few other sources explicitly quantify the climate impacts of grassland protection, but the available data are roughly aligned with our estimates of additional mitigation potential. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change estimated that avoided conversion of grasslands to croplands could reduce emissions by 0.03–0.7 Gt CO₂‑eq/yr (Nabuurs et al., 2022). Griscom et al. (2017) estimated that avoided grassland conversion could save 0.12 Gt CO₂‑eq/yr emissions from soil carbon only (not counting loss of vegetation, sequestration potential, or nitrous oxide), though their analysis did not account for current protection and relied on older estimates of grassland conversion. 

Table 7a–e. Climate impact at different levels of adoption.

Unit: GtCO₂‑eq/yr, 100-year basis

Current Adoption 0.305
Achievable – Low 0.305
Achievable – High 0.336
Adoption Ceiling 0.481

Unit: GtCO₂‑eq/yr, 100-year basis

Current Adoption 0.093
Achievable – Low 0.195
Achievable – High 0.273
Adoption Ceiling 0.390

Unit: GtCO₂‑eq/yr, 100-year basis

Current Adoption 0.037
Achievable – Low 0.039
Achievable – High 0.055
Adoption Ceiling 0.078

Unit: GtCO₂‑eq/yr, 100-year basis

Current Adoption 0.033
Achievable – Low 0.033
Achievable – High 0.040
Adoption Ceiling 0.057

Unit: GtCO₂‑eq/yr, 100-year basis

Current Adoption 0.468
Achievable – Low 0.572
Achievable – High 0.704
Adoption Ceiling 1.006

Floods

Grassland plants often have deep root systems, leading to high soil carbon stocks (Sloat et al., 2025). These roots can absorb water and reduce discharge into surrounding water bodies during periods of excessive rain (GRaSS, 2024).

Droughts

Different grassland plant species respond differently to drought. Variations in precipitation seasonality due to drought may allow some grass species to dominate over others (Knapp et al., 2020). Evidence suggests that higher species diversity can enhance grassland resilience to drought (Smith et al., 2024; Yu et al., 2025).  Additionally, the deep root systems of grassland plants contribute to the drought resilience of these ecosystems (Sloat et al., 2025). More resilient, biodiverse grasslands are associated with greater ecosystem stability and productivity, and can maintain ecosystem services during periods of extreme weather, such as drought (Isbell et al, 2015; Lefcheck et al., 2015).

Income and Work

Grasslands are an important source of income for surrounding communities through tourism and other ecosystem services (Bengtsson et al., 2019). Protecting grasslands sustains the long-term health of the ecosystem, which is especially important for subsistence livelihoods that depend on intact landscapes for incomes (Pelser, 2015). Sources of income that are directly generated from grasslands include: meat, milk, wool, and leather and thatching materials to make brooms, hats, and baskets (GRaSS, 2024; Pelser, 2015). People living near grasslands often rely on grazing livestock for food and income (GRaSS, 2024, Kemp 2013, Su et al., 2019). Grasslands in China support the livelihoods of about 16 million people, many of whom live in poverty (Kemp et al., 2013). The Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau is especially important for grazing livestock (Su et al., 2019). Evidence has shown that declines in grassland productivity are also linked to declines in income (Kemp et al., 2013).

Food Security

Grasslands can contribute to food security by providing food for livestock and supporting pollinators for nearby agriculture (Sloat et al., 2025). Grassland-based grazing systems are important sources of food for populations in low and middle-income countries, particularly in Oceania, Latin America, the Caribbean, the Middle East, North Africa, and sub-Saharan Africa (Resare Sahlin et al., 2023). Grasslands can support the food security of smallholder farmers and pastoralists in these regions by providing meat and milk (GRaSS, 2024; Michalk, 2018). 

Equality

Grasslands are central to many cultures, and grassland protection can support shared cultural and spiritual values for many populations. They can be sources of identity for people living in or near grassland ecosystems who have strong connections with the land (Bengtsson et al., 2019, GRaSS, 2024). In Mongolia, for example, grasslands sustain horses, which are central to the cultural identities and livelihoods of communities, particularly nomadic populations (Kemp et al., 2014). Grasslands can also be an important source of shared identity for pastoralists who move herds to graze based on seasonal cycles during the year (Liechti & Biber, 2016).

Nature Protection

Many grasslands are biodiversity hot spots (Petermann & Buzhdygan, 2021; Su et al., 2019). Numerous plant and animal species are endemic to grasslands, meaning they have limited habitat ranges and can easily become endangered with habitat degradation (Sloat et al., 2025). In Germany, grasslands in PAs were found to have higher plant diversity than in non-PAs (Kachler et al., 2023). Grasslands are important habitats for bird species that rely on them for breeding grounds (GRaSS, 2024; Nugent et al., 2022).

Land Resources

The unique, deep root structures of some grassland plants can improve soil stability and reduce soil erosion (Bengtsson et al., 2019; GRaSS, 2024; Kemp et al., 2013).

Water Resources

Grasslands can regulate water flows and water storage. The root systems can help rainwater reach deep underground, recharging groundwater stores (Bengtsson et al., 2019; GRaSS, 2024).

Other

Permanence

Permanence is a caveat for emissions avoidance through grassland protection that is not addressed in this analysis. Protected grasslands could be converted to agricultural uses or other development if legal protections are reversed or inadequately enforced, resulting in the loss of stored carbon. Many PAs allow for some human uses, and PA management that is not tailored to grazing needs, fire dependency, or woody plant encroachment can reduce carbon stocks within PAs (Barger et al., 2011; Chang et al., 2021; Conant et al, 2017; Jackson et al., 2002; Kemp et al., 2013; Popleau et al., 2011). Climate change is also causing widespread degradation of grasslands, including reductions in vegetation productivity that may reduce carbon storage over the long term even in the absence of additional disturbance (Chang et al., 2021; Gang et al., 2014; Li et al., 2023; Zhu et al., 2016). Climate change and aridification may also cause expansion of grassland extent (Berg & McColl, 2021; Feng & Fu, 2014; Huang et al., 2016), with mixed but overall negative impacts on terrestrial carbon uptake (Yao et al., 2020).

Additionality

Additionality is another important caveat for emissions avoidance through ecosystem protection (Ahlering et al., 2016; Williams et al., 2023). In this analysis, additionality was addressed by using baseline rates of grassland conversion in calculating effectiveness. Evaluating additionality is challenging and remains an active area of research.

Relying on grassland protection as an emissions reduction strategy can be undermined if ecosystem conversion that is not allowed inside a PA simply takes place outside of it instead (Aherling et al., 2016; Asamoah et al., 2021). If such leakage leads to conversion of ecosystems that have higher carbon stocks, such as forests, peatlands, or coastal wetlands, total emissions may increase. Combining grassland protection with policies to reduce incentives for ecosystem conversion can help avoid leakage.

Establishment of PAs may limit local access to grasslands for grazing or other forms of income generation, although effective management plans should account for the grazing needs of the protected grassland. Second, allocation of budgetary resources to PA establishment may divert resources from maintenance and enforcement of existing PAs. Finally, protection of grasslands may reduce land availability for renewable energy infrastructure, such as solar and wind power.

Reinforcing

PAs often include multiple ecosystems. Grassland protection will likely lead to protection of other ecosystems within the same areas, and the health of nearby ecosystems is improved by the services provided by intact grasslands. 

These solutions reduce pressure to convert grasslands to agricultural use, easing the expansion of PAs.

Restored grasslands need protection to reduce the risk of future disturbance, and the health of protected grasslands can be improved through the restoration of adjacent degraded grasslands.

Grazing by large herbivores is critical for the health of many grasslands, and healthy grasslands are needed to support restoration of large herbivores.

Competing

Additional crop deployment can increase demand for agricultural land, reducing the grassland area available for protection. 

Grassland protection may reduce land availability for renewable energy infrastructure.

Consensus of effectiveness in reducing emissions and maintaining carbon removal: High

There is high scientific consensus that grassland protection reduces emissions by reducing conversion of grasslands. Grasslands have been extensively converted globally because of their utility for agricultural use, and many extant grasslands are at high risk of conversion (Carbutt et al., 2017; Gang et al., 2014). Li et al. (2024) found that PAs prevent conversion of approximately 0.35% of global grasslands per year. Although grasslands remain understudied relative to some other ecosystems, there is robust evidence that PAs and IPLs reduce forest conversion, with estimates in different regions ranging from 17–75% reductions in forest loss relative to unprotected areas (Baragwanth & Bayi, 2020; Graham et al., 2021; McNichol et al., 2023; Sze et al., 2022; Wolf et al., 2022). Additional research specific to grasslands on the effectiveness of PAs and IPLs at preventing land use change would be valuable. 

Conversion of grasslands to croplands produces emissions through the loss of soil carbon and biomass (IPCC, 2019). A recent meta-analysis based on 5,980 soil carbon measurements found that grassland conversion to croplands reduces soil carbon stocks by a global average of 23%, or almost 30 t CO₂ /ha (Huang et al., 2024), before accounting for nitrous oxide emissions (IPCC, 2019), loss of biomass carbon stocks (Spawn et al., 2020), and loss of sequestration potential (Chang et al., 2021).

Regional studies also find that grassland protection provides emissions savings. For instance, a study of grasslands in Argentina and the United States found that conversion to croplands reduced total carbon stocks, including soil and biomass, by 117 t CO₂‑eq /ha (Kim et al., 2016). Ahlering et al. (2016) conclude that protecting just 210,000 ha of unprotected grasslands in the U.S. Northern Great Plains would avoid 11.7 Mt CO₂‑eq over 20 years, with emissions savings of 51.6 t CO₂‑eq /ha protected, or 35.6 t CO₂‑eq /ha after accounting for leakage and uncertainty. 

The quantitative results presented in this assessment synthesize findings from 13 global datasets supplemented by three meta-analyses with global scopes. We recognize that geographic bias in the information underlying global data products creates bias and hope this work inspires research and data sharing on this topic in underrepresented regions.

Take Action

Looking to get involved? Below are some key actions for this solution that can get you started, arranged according to different roles you may play in your professional or personal life.

These actions are meant to be starting points for involvement and are not intended to be prescriptive or necessarily suggest they are the most important or impactful actions to take. We encourage you to explore and get creative!

Lawmakers and Policymakers

  • Set scalable targets (across both biogeographic and administrative levels) for grassland protections, including outcomes-based reporting, indicators for the rate of progress, goals for inclusivity, and measurements for enforcement efficacy; incorporate these targets into national climate plans and multilateral agreements.
  • Ensure public procurement uses products and supply chains that do not disrupt PAs and grasslands; ensure public development projects do not disturb PAs and grasslands.
  • Grant Indigenous communities full property rights and autonomy and support them in monitoring, managing, and enforcing PAs; adhere to principles of free, prior, and informed consent when engaging with Indigenous communities and lands.
  • Manage fire, biodiversity, and grazing in protected grasslands in accordance with ecological needs, learning from and working with Indigenous communities.
  • Ensure PAs don’t displace, violate rights, or reduce access to vital resources for local and Indigenous communities.
  • Expand regulatory, legal, and technical support for privately protected grasslands.
  • When expanding PAs, acquire relevant adjacent properties first, if possible, to increase connectivity and reduce costs; grant restored grasslands protected status.
  • Invest in PA infrastructure, monitoring, management, and enforcement mechanisms.
  • Ban or restrict overgrazing and extractive harvesting while allowing for sustainable use of PAs from Indigenous and local communities; compensate herders for lost grazing lands, if necessary.
  • Ensure PAs are adequately financed and, if applicable, provide financing for low- and middle-income countries and communities for grassland protections.
  • Ensure incentives and/or compensation for reducing livestock or protecting grasslands are evenly distributed with particular attention to low- and middle-income farmers and communities.
  • Use financial incentives such as subsidies, tax breaks, payments for ecosystem services (PES), and debt-for-nature swaps to protect grasslands from development.
  • Remove harmful subsidies for agricultural, grazing, mining, and other resource extraction.
  • Use comanagement, community-governed, land-trust, and/or privately protected models to expand PAs, increase connectivity, and engage communities; ensure a participatory approach to designating and managing PAs.
  • Use real-time monitoring, ground-level sensors, and satellite data to enforce protections, ensuring adequate baseline data are gathered if possible.
  • Ensure budgets adequately split financing between expanding PAs and managing PAs; prioritize quality management of existing PAs before expanding new designations except in cases where nonprotected land conversion presents the most serious risks to people, the climate, or biodiversity.
  • Conduct proactive land-use planning to avoid roads and other development projects that may interfere with PAs or incentivize development.
  • Create processes for legal grievances, dispute resolution, and restitution.
  • Create programs that educate the public on PA regulations, the benefits of the regulations, and how to use grassland resources sustainably.
  • Join, support, or create certification and independent audit schemes to monitor effectiveness and identify necessary improvements in management.

Further information:

Practitioners

  • Set scalable targets (across both biogeographic and administrative levels) for grassland protection, including outcomes-based reporting, indicators for the rate of progress, goals for inclusivity, and measurements for enforcement efficacy; advocate to incorporate these targets into national climate plans and multilateral agreements.
  • Improve monitoring and evaluation standards for grassland ecologies and the impacts from animal agriculture.
  • Ensure incentives and/or compensation for reducing livestock or protecting grasslands are evenly distributed with particular attention to low- and middle-income farmers and communities.
  • Ensure PAs are adequately financed and, if applicable, provide financing for low- and middle-income countries and communities for grassland protections.
  • When expanding PAs, acquire relevant adjacent properties first, if possible, to increase connectivity and reduce costs.
  • Use financial incentives such as subsidies, tax breaks, PES, and debt-for-nature swaps to protect grasslands from development.
  • Empower local communities to manage grasslands and ensure a participatory approach to designating and managing PAs.
  • Use comanagement, community-governed, land-trust, and/or privately-protected models to expand PAs, increase connectivity, and engage communities.
  • Ban or restrict overgrazing and extractive harvesting while allowing sustainable use of PAs by Indigenous and local communities; compensate herders for lost grazing lands if necessary.
  • Use real-time monitoring, ground-level sensors, and satellite data to enforce protections, ensuring adequate baseline data are gathered if possible.
  • Ensure budgets adequately split financing between expanding PAs and managing PAs; prioritize quality management of existing PAs before expanding new designations - except in cases where non-protected land conversion presents the most serious risk to people, the climate, or biodiversity.
  • Create education programs that educate the public on PA regulations, the benefits of the regulations, and how to use grassland resources sustainably.
  • Join, support, or create certification and independent audit schemes to monitor effectiveness and identify necessary improvements in management.

Further information:

Business Leaders

  • Ensure operations, development, and supply chains are not degrading grasslands or interfering with PA management.
  • Integrate grassland protection into net-zero strategies, if relevant.
  • Commit and adhere to minimizing irrecoverable carbon loss through development projects, supply-chain management, and general operations.
  • Help revise existing or create new high-integrity carbon markets, institutions, rules, and norms to cultivate the demand for high-quality carbon credits.
  • Only purchase carbon credits from high-integrity, verifiable carbon markets, and do not use them as replacements for decarbonizing operations or claim them as “offsets.”
  • Consider donating to established grassland protection funds in place of carbon credits.
  • Take advantage of financial incentives such as subsidies, tax breaks, and PES to grasslands from development.
  • Amplify the voices of local communities and civil society to promote robust media coverage.
  • Invest in and support Indigenous and local communities' capacity for management, legal protection, and public relations.
  • Leverage political influence to advocate for stronger grassland protection policies at national and international levels.
  • Conduct proactive land use planning to avoid roads and other development projects that may interfere with PAs.
  • Join, support, or create certification and independent audit schemes to monitor effectiveness and identify necessary improvements in management.

Further information:

Nonprofit Leaders

  • Advocate for enhanced enforcement of existing PAs and IPLs, expansion of new PAs and IPLs, and for more public investments.
  • Advocate for scalable targets (across both biogeographic and administrative levels) for grassland protections, including outcomes-based reporting, indicators for the rate of progress, goals for inclusivity, and measurements for enforcement efficacy; advocate for these goals to be incorporated into national climate plans and multilateral agreements.
  • Help manage and monitor protected grasslands using real-time monitoring, ground-based sensors, and satellite data.
  • Provide financial support for monitoring and enforcement of PAs and IPLs.
  • Help conduct proactive land-use planning to avoid infrastructure or development projects that may interfere with protected grasslands or incentivize destruction.
  • Advocate for creating legal grievance processes, dispute resolution mechanisms, and restitution procedures for violations or disagreements over PAs or IPLs.
  • Help revise existing or create new high-integrity carbon markets, institutions, rules, and norms to cultivate the demand for high-quality carbon credits.
  • Amplify the voices of local communities and civil society to promote robust media coverage.
  • Invest in and support the capacity of Indigenous and local communities for management, legal protection, and public relations.
  • Use or advocate for financial incentives such as subsidies, tax breaks, and PES to protect grasslands from development.
  • Improve monitoring and evaluation standards for grassland ecologies and the impacts from animal agriculture.
  • Help classify and map grasslands, carbon stocks, and biodiversity data and create local, national, and international standards for classification.
  • Work with insurance companies to reduce insurance premiums for properties that protect or maintain grasslands.
  • Create and manage a global database of protected grasslands, grassland loss, restoration, and management initiatives.
  • Join, support, or create certification and independent audit schemes to monitor effectiveness and identify necessary improvements in management.
  • Create programs that educate the public on PA regulations, the benefits of the regulations, and how to use grassland resources sustainably.

Further information:

Investors

  • Ensure investment portfolios do not degrade grasslands or interfere with PAs or IPLs, using data, information, and the latest technology to inform investments.
  • Consider any project that releases irrecoverable carbon loss through the destruction of ecosystems like grasslands to be high risk, avoid investments in these projects as much as possible, and divest from any companies violating this principle.
  • Invest in grassland protection, monitoring, management, and enforcement mechanisms.
  • Use financial mechanisms such as credible biodiversity offsets, payments for ecosystem services, voluntary high-integrity carbon markets, and debt-for-nature swaps to fund grassland protection.
  • Invest in and support the capacity of Indigenous and local communities for management, legal protection, and public relations.
  • Share with other investors and nongovernmental organizations data, information, and investment frameworks that successfully avoid investments that drive grassland destruction.
  • Provide favorable loans to Indigenous communities and entrepreneurs and businesses protecting grasslands.
  • Join, support, or create certification and independent audit schemes to monitor effectiveness and identify necessary improvements in management.

Further information:

Philanthropists and International Aid Agencies

  • Advocate for enhanced enforcement of existing PAs and IPLs, expansion of new PAs and IPLs, and more public investments.
  • Advocate for scalable targets (across both biogeographic and administrative levels) for grassland protections, including outcomes-based reporting, indicators for the rate of progress, goals for inclusivity, and measurements for enforcement efficacy; advocate for these goals to be incorporated into national climate plans and multilateral agreements.
  • Use or advocate for financial incentives such as subsidies, tax breaks, and PES to protect grasslands from development.
  • Help manage and monitor protected grassland, using real-time monitoring and satellite data.
  • Provide technical assistance to low- and middle-income countries and communities for grasslands protection.
  • Provide financial assistance to low- and middle-income countries and communities for grasslands protection.
  • Provide financial support to organizations and institutions developing and deploying monitoring technology and conducting grassland research.
  • Help conduct proactive land-use planning to avoid infrastructure or development projects that may interfere with protected grasslands or incentivize destruction.
  • Help revise existing or create new high-integrity carbon markets, institutions, rules, and norms to cultivate the demand for high-quality carbon credits.
  • Amplify the voices of local communities and civil society to promote robust media coverage.
  • Invest in and support Indigenous and local communities' capacity for management, legal protection, and public relations.
  • Advocate for creating legal grievance processes, dispute resolution mechanisms, and restitution procedures for violations or disagreements over PAs or IPLs.
  • Help classify and map grasslands, carbon stocks, and biodiversity data and create local, national, and international standards for classification.
  • Work with insurance companies to reduce insurance premiums for properties that protect or maintain grasslands.
  • Create and manage a global database of protected grasslands, grassland loss, restoration, and management initiatives.
  • Join, support, or create certification and independent audit schemes to monitor effectiveness and identify necessary improvements in management.
  • Create education programs that educate the public on PA regulations, the benefits of the regulations, and how to use grassland resources sustainably.

Further information:

Thought Leaders

  • Help change the narrative around grasslands by highlighting their value and benefits such as supporting human life, biodiversity, ecosystem resilience, and climate regulation.
  • Advocate for enhanced enforcement of existing PAs and IPLs, expansion of new PAs and IPLs, and public investments.
  • Advocate for scalable targets (across both biogeographic and administrative levels) for grassland protections, including outcomes-based reporting, indicators for the rate of progress, goals for inclusivity, and measurements for enforcement efficacy; advocate for these to be incorporated into national climate plans and multilateral agreements.
  • Advocate for or use financial incentives such as subsidies, tax breaks, PES, and debt-for-nature swaps to protect grasslands from development.
  • Help manage and monitor protected grasslands using real-time monitoring and satellite data.
  • Help conduct proactive land-use planning to avoid infrastructure or development projects that may interfere with protected grasslands or incentivize conversion.
  • Advocate for creating legal grievance processes, dispute resolution mechanisms, and restitution procedures for violations or disagreements over PAs or IPLs.
  • Help improve monitoring and evaluation standards for grassland ecologies and impacts from animal agriculture.
  • Help revise existing or create new high-integrity carbon and biodiversity markets, institutions, rules, and norms to cultivate the demand for high-quality carbon credits.
  • Amplify the voices of local communities and civil society to promote robust media coverage.
  • Support Indigenous and local communities' capacity for legal protection, management, and public relations.
  • Help classify and map grasslands, carbon stocks, and biodiversity data and create local, national, and international standards for classification.
  • Create and manage a global database of protected grasslands, grassland loss, restoration, and management initiatives.
  • Join, support, or create certification and independent audit schemes to monitor effectiveness and identify necessary improvements in management.
  • Create programs that educate the public on PA regulations, the benefits of the regulations, and how to use grassland resources sustainably.

Further information:

Technologists and Researchers

  • Develop standardized indicators of grassland degradation.
  • Research the ecological interactions of grasslands with other ecosystems; share data widely and include recommendations for coordinated action.
  • Assess and publish costs of PA designation, management, and evaluation.
  • Conduct comparative analysis on different types of governance models for PAs to determine impacts on climate, biodiversity, and human well-being.
  • Examine the relationship between geography and governance structures of private PAs, looking for spatial patterns and roles of various stakeholders such NGOs, businesses, and private landowners.
  • Study behavioral change mechanisms that can increase effectiveness and enforcement of PAs.
  • Improve monitoring methods using field measurements, models, satellite imagery, and GIS tools.
  • Create or improve on existing software tools that allow for dynamic planning and management of PAs by monitoring impacts on local communities, the climate, and biodiversity.
  • Create local research sites to support PAs and provide technical assistance.
  • Create tools for local communities to monitor grasslands, such as mobile apps, e-learning platforms, and mapping tools.
  • Develop supply chain tracking software for investors and businesses seeking to create sustainable portfolios and products.

Further information:

Communities, Households, and Individuals

  • Avoid developing intact grasslands and adhere to sustainable use guidelines of PAs.
  • Participate or volunteer in local grassland protection efforts; use or advocate for comanagement, community-governed, land-trust, and/or privately protected models to expand PAs, increase connectivity, and allow for continued community engagement.
  • Help manage and monitor protected grasslands using real-time monitoring and satellite data.
  • Establish coordinating bodies for farmers, herders, developers, landowners, policymakers, and other stakeholders to holistically manage PAs.
  • Advocate for enhanced enforcement of existing PAs and IPLs, expansion of new PAs and IPLs, and public investments.
  • Help conduct proactive land-use planning to avoid infrastructure or development projects that may interfere with protected grasslands or incentivize destruction.
  • Advocate for creating legal grievance processes, dispute resolution mechanisms, and restitution procedures for violations or disagreements over PAs or IPLs.
  • Help revise existing or create new high-integrity carbon and biodiversity markets, institutions, rules, and norms to cultivate the demand for high-quality carbon credits.
  • Support Indigenous communities' capacity for management, legal protection and public relations.
  • Use or advocate for financial incentives such as subsidies, tax breaks, and PES to protect grasslands from development.
  • Help classify and map grasslands and create local, national, and international standards for classification.
  • Ensure PAs don’t displace, violate rights, or reduce access to vital resources for local and Indigenous communities.
  • Work with insurance companies to reduce insurance premiums for properties that protect or maintain grasslands.
  • Plant native species to help improve the local ecological balance and stabilize the soil, especially on property adjacent to PAs.
  • Use nontoxic cleaning and gardening supplies, purchase unbleached paper products, and recycle to help keep pollution and debris out of grasslands.
  • Join, support, or create certification and independent audit schemes to monitor effectiveness and identify necessary improvements in management.
  • Create programs that educate the public on PA regulations, the benefits of the regulations, and how to use grassland resources sustainably.

Further information:

“Take Action” Sources

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Appendix

This analysis quantifies the emissions avoidable through legal protection of grasslands via establishment of PAs or land tenure for Indigenous peoples. We leveraged a global grassland distribution map alongside other ecosystem distribution maps, shapefiles of PAs and IPLs, available data on rates of avoided ecosystem loss attributable to PA establishment, maps of grassland carbon stocks in above- and below-ground biomass, and biome-level estimates of soil carbon loss for grasslands converted to croplands. This appendix describes the source data products and how they were integrated. 

Grassland Extent

We relied on the 30-m resolution global map of grassland extent developed by Parente et al. (2024), which classifies both “natural and semi-natural grasslands” and “managed grasslands.” This solution considers only the “natural and semi-natural grasslands” class. We first resampled the data to 1 km resolution by calculating the percent of the pixel occupied by grasslands. To avoid double counting land considered in other ecosystem protection solutions (Protect Forests, Protect Peatlands, and Protect Coastal Wetlands), we then adjusted the grassland map so that no pixel contained a value greater than 100% after summing all ecosystem types. These other ecosystems can overlap with grasslands either because they are non-exclusive (e.g., peatland soils can have grassland vegetation), or because of variable definitions (e.g., the grassland map allows up to 50% tree cover, which could be classified as a forest by other land cover maps). After adjusting for other ecosystems, we used the Terrestrial Ecoregions of the World data (Olson et al., 2001) to exclude areas of natural forest, because these areas are eligible for other solutions. 

The resultant raster of proportionate grassland coverage was converted to absolute areas, and used to calculate the total grassland area for each of four latitude bands (tropical: –23.4° to 23.4°; subtropical: –35° to –23.4° and 23.4° to 35°; temperate: –50° to –35° and 35° to 50°; boreal: <–50° and >50°). The analysis was conducted by latitude bands in order to retain some spatial variability in emissions factors and degradation rates. 

Protected Grassland Areas

We identified protected grassland areas using the World Database on Protected Areas (WDPA) (UNEP-WCMC and IUCN, 2024), which contains boundaries for each PA and additional information, including their establishment year and IUCN management category (Ia–VI, not applicable, not reported, and not assigned). The PA boundary data were converted to a raster and used to calculate the grassland area within PA boundaries for each latitude band and each PA category. To evaluate trends in adoption over time, we also aggregated protected areas by establishment year as reported in the WDPA. 

We used the maps of IPLs from Garnett et al. (2018) to identify IPLs that were not inside of established PAs. The total grassland area within IPLs was calculated according to the same process as for PAs.

Avoided Grassland Conversion

Broadly, we estimated annual, per-hectare emissions savings from grassland protection as the difference between net carbon exchange in a protected grassland and an unprotected grassland. This calculation followed Equation A1, in which the annual grassland loss avoided due to protection (%/yr) is multiplied by the 30-yr cumulative sum of emissions per hectare of grassland converted to cropland (CO₂‑eq /ha over 30 yr). 

Equation A1.

\[ Effectiveness = Grassland\text{ }loss_{avoided} \times \sum_{t=1}^{30}{Emissions} \]

The avoided grassland loss attributable to PAs was calculated from the source data for Figure 7 of Li et al. (2024), which provides the difference in habitat loss between protected areas and unprotected control areas between 2003 and 2019 by ecoregion. These data were filtered to only include grasslands, aggregated to latitude bands, and used to calculate annual linear rates of avoided habitat loss. Tropical and subtropical regions were not clearly distinguished, so the same rate was used for both.

Grassland Conversion Emissions

The emissions associated with grassland conversion to cropland include loss of above- and below-ground biomass carbon stocks, loss of soil carbon stocks, and loss of carbon sequestration potential. We used data on above- and below-ground biomass carbon stocks from Spawn et al. (2020) to calculate the average carbon stocks by latitude band for grassland pixels and cropland pixels. We used the 2010 European Space Agency Climate Change Initiative (ESA CCI, 2019) land cover dataset for this calculation because it was the base map used to generate the biomass carbon stock dataset. The per-hectare difference between biomass carbon stocks in grasslands and croplands represents the emissions from biomass carbon stocks following grassland conversion.

We aggregated soil carbon stocks from SoilGrids 2.0 (0–30 cm depth) to latitude bands for grassland pixels from the 2015 ESA CCI land cover dataset, which was the base map used for the SoilGrids dataset (Poggio et al., 2021). To avoid capturing peatlands, which have higher carbon stocks, we excluded pixels with soil carbon contents >15% by mass (a slightly conservative cutoff for organic soils) prior to aggregation. We took the percent loss of soil carbon following grassland-to-cropland conversion from Table S8 of the meta-analysis by Huang et al. (2024), who also conducted their analysis by latitude band. Soil carbon losses are also associated with nitrous oxide emissions, which were calculated per the IPCC Tier 1 equations as follows using the default carbon-to-nitrogen ratio of 15:1. 

We calculated the loss of carbon sequestration potential based on estimates of grassland annual net CO₂ flux, extracted from Table S2 from Chang et al. (2021). These data include field- and model-based measurements of grassland net CO₂ flux and were used to calculate median values by latitude band.

Credits

Lead Fellow

  • Avery Driscoll

Contributors

  • Ruthie Burrows, Ph.D.

  • James Gerber, Ph.D.

  • Daniel Jasper

  • Alex Sweeney

Internal Reviewers

  • Aiyana Bodi

  • Hannah Henkin

  • Ted Otte

  • Christina Richardson, Ph.D.

  • Christina Swanson, Ph.D.

  • Paul C. West, Ph.D.

Methods and Supporting Data

Methods and Supporting Data

Comments / Questions

  • Greenhouse gas quantity expressed relative to CO₂ with the same warming impact over 100 years, calculated by multiplying emissions by the 100-yr GWP for the emitted gases.

  • Greenhouse gas quantity expressed relative to CO₂ with the same warming impact over 20 years, calculated by multiplying emissions by the 20-yr GWP for the emitted gases.

  • 8th World Congress on Conservation Agriculture

  • Reducing greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere by preventing or reducing emissions.

  • The process of increasing acidity.

  • The extent to which emissions reduction or carbon removal is above and beyond what would have occurred without implementing a particular action or solution.

  • An upper limit on solution adoption based on physical or technical constraints, not including economic or policy barriers. This level is unlikely to be reached and will not be exceeded.

  • The quantity and metric to measure implementation for a particular solution that is used as the reference unit for calculations within that solution.

  • A composting method in which organic waste is processed in freestanding piles that can be aerated actively with forced air or passively by internal convection.

  • The interactions of aerodynamic forces and flexible structures, often including the stucture's control system.

  • A process in which microbes break down organic materials in the presence of oxygen. This process converts food and green waste into nutrient-rich compost.

  • Farming practices that work to create socially and ecologically sustainable food production.

  • Addition of trees and shrubs to crop or animal farming systems.

  • Spread out the cost of an asset over its useful lifetime.

  • A crop that live one year or less from planting to harvest; also called annual.

  • aerated static piles

  • black carbon

  • Made from material of biological origin, such as plants, animals, or other organisms.

  • A renewable energy source generated from organic matter from plants and/or algae.

  • An energy source composed primarily of methane and CO₂ that is produced by microorganisms when organic matter decomposes in the absence of oxygen.

  • Carbon stored in biological matter, including soil, plants, fungi, and plant products (e.g., wood, paper, biofuels). This carbon is sequestered from the atmosphere but can be released through decomposition or burning.

  • Living or dead renewable matter from plants or animals, not including organic material transformed into fossil fuels. Peat, in early decay stages, is partially renewable biomass.

  • Biogas refined to the same quality as natural gas. CO₂ and impurities are removed, and the biomethane can be distributed and used in existing natural gas technologies.
     

  • A type of carbon sequestration that captures carbon from CO₂ via photosynthesis and stores it in soils, sediments, and biomass, distinct from sequestration through chemical or industrial pathways.

  • A climate pollutant, also called soot, produced from incomplete combustion of organic matter, either naturally (wildfires) or from human activities (biomass or fossil fuel burning).

  • A secure, decentralized way of digitally tracking transactions that could be used to improve the transparency and efficiency of carbon markets. 

  • High-latitude (>50°N or >50°S) climate regions characterized by short growing seasons and cold temperatures.

  • The components of a building that physically separate the indoors from the outdoor environment.

  • Businesses involved in the sale and/or distribution of solution-related equipment and technology, and businesses that want to support adoption of the solution.

  • A chemical reaction involving heating a solid to a high temperature; to make cement clinker, limestone is calcined into lime in a process that requires high heat and produces CO₂.

  • The ratio of the actual electricity an energy technology generates over a period of time to the maximum it could have produced if it operated at full capacity continuously.

  • A four-wheeled passenger vehicle.

  • Average number of people traveling in a car per trip.

  • Technologies that collect CO₂ before it enters the atmosphere, preventing emissions at their source. Collected CO₂ can be used onsite or in new products, or stored long term to prevent release.

  • A greenhouse gas that is naturally found in the atmosphere. Its atmospheric concentration has been increasing due to human activities, leading to warming and climate impacts.

  • Total GHG emissions resulting from a particular action, material, technology, or sector.

  • Amount of GHG emissions released per activity or unit of production. 

  • A marketplace where carbon credits are purchased and sold. One carbon credit represents activities that avoid, reduce, or remove one metric ton of GHG emissions.

  • A colorless, odorless gas released during the incomplete combustion of fuels containing carbon. Carbon monoxide can harm health and be fatal at high concentrations.

  • The time it takes for the emissions reduction from a measure to equal the emissions invested in implementing the measure.

  • Activities or technologies that pull CO₂ out of the atmosphere, including enhancing natural carbon sinks and deploying engineered sinks.

  • Long-term storage of carbon in soils, sediment, biomass, oceans, and geologic formations after removal of CO₂ from the atmosphere or CO₂ capture from industrial and power generation processes.

  • carbon capture and storage

  • carbon capture, utilization, and storage

  • A binding ingredient in concrete responsible for most of concrete’s life-cycle emissions. Cement is made primarily of clinker mixed with other mineral components.

  • chlorofluorocarbon

  • methane

  • Energy sources that have little to no negative environmental or climate impacts during operation relative to fossil fuel–based energy sources.

  • Gases or particles that have a planet-warming effect when released to the atmosphere. Some climate pollutants also cause other forms of environmental damage.

  • A binding ingredient in cement responsible for most of the life-cycle emissions from cement and concrete production.

  • A waste management process where waste is made into the same original product, preserving quality and value so materials can be reused multiple times while keeping resources in continuous use.

  • carbon monoxide

  • Neighbors, volunteer organizations, hobbyists and interest groups, online communities, early adopters, individuals sharing a home, and private citizens seeking to support the solution.

  • A solution that potentially lowers the benefit of another solution through reduced effectiveness, higher costs, reduced or delayed adoption, or diminished global climate impact.

  • A farming system that combines reduced tillage, cover crops, and crop rotations.

  • A risk-sharing financial agreement in which two parties (e.g., renewable generator, government) guarantee a fixed price (e.g., electricity price). If market prices fluctuate, one party pays the other the difference.

  • carbon dioxide

  • A  measure standardizing the warming effects of greenhouse gases relative to CO₂. CO₂-eq is calculated as quantity (metric tons) of a particular gas multiplied by its GWP.

  • carbon dioxide equivalent

  • Plant materials left over after a harvest, such as stalks, leaves, and seed husks.

  • A granular material made by crushing broken or waste glass.

  • direct air capture

  • Financial agreements in which government creditors forgive a portion of debt in exchange for specific conservation commitments.

  • The process of cutting greenhouse gas emissions (primarily CO₂) from a particular sector or activity.

  • An industrial process that removes printing ink from used or waste paper fibers, creating clean pulp that can be turned into new paper products.

  • A solution that works slower than gradual solutions and is expected to take longer to reach its full potential.

  • Microbial conversion of nitrate into inert nitrogen gas under low-oxygen conditions, which produces the greenhouse gas nitrous oxide as an intermediate compound.

  • Greenhouse gas emissions produced as a direct result of the use of a technology or practice.

  • A window consisting of two glass panes separated by a sealed gap and typically filled with air or an inert gas to improve the heat flow resistance.

  • A waste management system that transforms waste into different products of lower quality and value, making materials harder to recycle again and limiting reuse.

  • European Energy Agency

  • Ability of a solution to reduce emissions or remove carbon, expressed in CO₂-eq per installed adoption unit. Effectiveness is quantified per year when the adoption unit is cumulative over time.

  • A process that uses electric current to drive a reaction, such as using electricity to split water molecules into hydrogen and oxygen.

  • Greenhouse gas emissions accrued over the lifetime of a material or product, including as it is produced, transported, used, and disposed of.

  • Solutions that work faster than gradual solutions, front-loading their impact in the near term.

  • Methane produced by microbes in the digestive tracts of ruminant livestock, such as cattle, sheep and goats.

  • U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

  • expanded polystyrene

  • Environmental Research & Education Foundation

  • environmental, social, and governance

  • exchange-traded fund

  • A process triggered by an overabundance of nutrients in water, particularly nitrogen and phosphorus, that stimulates excessive plant and algae growth and can harm aquatic organisms.

  • Electric vehicle

  • An ecological process that releases water into the atmosphere as a gas from soil and ice (evaporation) and plants (transpiration).

     

  • The scientific literature that supports our assessment of a solution's effectiveness.

  • A group of human-made molecules that contain fluorine atoms. They are potent greenhouse gases with GWPs that can be hundreds to thousands times higher than CO₂.

  • Food, agriculture, land, and ocean

  • Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations

  • feed conversion ratio

  • The efficiency with which an animal converts feed into increased body mass, measured as the ratio of the weight of the feed given to weight gain. Lower FCR means less feed for the same growth.

  • Raw material inputs for manufacturing, processing, and managing waste.

  • Containing or consisting of iron.

  • A measure of fishing activity over time and area, commonly measured by number of trips, vessel time, or gear deployed.

  • food loss and waste

  • Food discarded during pre-consumer supply chain stages, including production, harvest, and processing.

  • Food discarded during pre-consumer supply chain stages, including production, harvest, and processing, along with food discarded wt the retail and consumer stages of the supply chain.

  • Food discarded at the retail and consumer stages of the supply chain.

  • Combustible materials found in Earth's crust that can be burned for energy, including oil, natural gas, and coal. They are formed from decayed organisms through prehistoric geological processes.

  • Free, prior, and informed consent

  • A principled process of working with Indigenous communities that requires consent from Indigenous peoples for any decision, action, or activity that impacts their community and/or lands.

  • Unintentional leaks of gases or vapor into the atmosphere.

  • Unintentional leaks of gases or vapor into the atmosphere.

  • A group of countries representing the majority of the world's population, trade, and GDP. There are 19 member countries plus the European Union and the African Union

  • greenhouse gas

  • gigajoule or billion joules

  • The glass layers or panes in a window.

  • A measure of how effectively a gas traps heat in the atmosphere relative to CO₂. GWP converts greenhouse gases into CO₂-eq emissions based on their 20- or 100-year impacts.

  • A solution that has a steady impact on the atmosphere. Effectiveness is expected to be constant over time rather than having a higher impact in the near or long term.

  • A fixed income debt instrument focused on sustainable projects. Green bonds work in the same manner as traditional bonds and may be issued by corporations, financial institutions, and governments.

  • Biomass discarded during landscaping and gardening.

  • A gas that traps heat in the atmosphere, contributing to climate change.

  • The makeup of electricity generation on a power grid, showing the share contributed by various energy sources (e.g., coal, natural gas, nuclear, wind, solar, hydro) relative to total electricity production.

  • metric gigatons or billion metric tons

  • global warming potential

  • hectare

  • household air pollution

  • hydrochlorofluorocarbon

  • Number of years a person is expected to live without disability or other limitations that restrict basic functioning and activity.

  • A unit of land area comprising 10,000 square meters, roughly equal to 2.5 acres.

  • Hybrid electric car

  • hydrofluorocarbon

  • hydrofluoroolefin

  • hydrofluoroolefin

  • Particles and gases released from use of polluting fuels and technologies such as biomass cookstoves that cause poor air quality in and around the home.

  • heating, ventilation, air conditioning, and refrigeration

  • Organic compounds that contain hydrogen and carbon.

  • Human-made F-gases that contain hydrogen, fluorine, and carbon. They typically have short atmospheric lifetimes and GWPs hundreds or thousands times higher than CO₂. 

  • Human-made F-gases that contain hydrogen, fluorine, and carbon, with at least one double bond. They have low GWPs and can be climate-friendly alternatives to HFC refrigerants.

  • Hydrogen is a gas that can be a fuel, feedstock, or means of storing energy. It generates water instead of GHG when burned, but the process of producing it can emit high levels of GHGs. 

  • Hydrogen is a gas that can be a fuel, feedstock, or means of storing energy. It generates water instead of GHG when burned, but the process of producing it can emit high levels of GHGs. 

  • A recycling process that separates fibers from contaminants for reuse. Paper or cardboard is mixed with water to break down fibrous materials into pulp.

  • internal combustion engine

  • International Energy Agency

  • Aerobic decomposition of organic waste in a sealed container or bin/bay system. 

  • Greenhouse gas emissions produced as a result of a technology or practice but not directly from its use.

  • Device used to power vehicles by the intake, compression, combustion, and exhaust of fuel that drives moving parts.

  • The annual discount rate that balances net cash flows for a project over time. Also called IRR, internal rate of return is used to estimate profitability of potential investments.

  • Individuals or institutions willing to lend money in search of a return on their investment.

  • Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

  • Indigenous peoples’ land

  • Integrated pest management.

  • internal rate of return

  • International Union for Conservation of Nature

  • The most comprehensive global list of species threatened with extinction, maintained by the International Union for Conservation of Nature.

  • International agreement adopted in 2016 to phase down the use of high-GWP HFC F-gases over the time frame 2019–2047.

  • A measure of energy equivalent to the energy delivered by 1,000 watts of power over one hour.

  • kiloton or one thousand metric tons

  • kilowatt-hour

  • A land-holding system, e.g. ownership, leasing, or renting. Secure land tenure means farmers or other land users will maintain access to and use of the land in future years.

  • Gases, mainly methane and CO₂, created by the decomposition of organic matter in the absence of oxygen.

  • levelized cost of electricity

  • leak detection and repair

  • Regular monitoring for fugitive methane leaks throughout oil and gas, coal, and landfill sector infrastructure and the modification or replacement of leaking equipment.

  • Relocation of emissions-causing activities outside of a mitigation project area rather than a true reduction in emissions.

  • The rate at which solution costs decrease as adoption increases, based on production efficiencies, technological improvements, or other factors.

  • Percent decrease in costs per doubling of adoption.

  • A metric describing the expected break-even cost of generating electricity per megawatt-hour ($/MWh), combining costs related to capital, operation, and fuel (if used) and dividing by total output over the generator's lifetime.

  • landfill gas

  • Greenhouse gas emissions from the sourcing, production, use, and disposal of a technology or practice.

  • The total weight of an organism before any meat processing.

  • low- and middle-income countries

  • liquefied petroleum gas

  • land use change

  • A measure of the amount of light produced by a light source per energy input.

  • live weight

  • marginal abatement cost curve

  • Livestock grazing practices that strategically manage livestock density, grazing intensity, and timing. Also called improved grazing, these practices have environmental, soil health, and climate benefits, including enhanced soil carbon sequestration.

  • A tool to measure and compare the financial cost and abatement benefit of individual actions based on the initial and operating costs, revenue, and emission reduction potential.

  • Defined by the International Union for Conservation of Nature as: "A clearly defined geographical space, recognised, dedicated and managed, through legal or other effective means, to achieve the long-term conservation of nature with associated ecosystem services and cultural values." References to PAs here also include other effective area-based conservation measures defined by the IUCN. 

  • A facility that receives recyclable waste from residential, commercial, and industrial sources; separates, processes, and prepares them; and then sells them to manufacturers for reuse in new products.

  • A measure of energy equivalent to the energy delivered by one million watts of power over one hour.

  • A greenhouse gas with a short lifetime and high GWP that can be produced through a variety of mechanisms including the breakdown of organic matter.

  • A measure of mass equivalent to 1,000 kilograms (~2,200 lbs).

  • million hectares

  • Soils mostly composed of inorganic materials formed through the breakdown of rocks. Most soils are mineral soils, and they generally have less than 20% organic matter by weight.

  • A localized electricity system that independently generates and distributes power. Typically serving limited geographic areas, mini-grids can operate in isolation or interconnected with the main grid.

  • Reducing the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere by cutting emissions or removing CO₂.

  • megajoule or one million joules

  • Percent of trips made by different passenger and freight transportation modes.

  • Marine Protected Area

  • materials recovery facility

  • Municipal solid waste

  • megaton or million metric tons

  • Materials discarded from residential and commercial sectors, including organic waste, glass, metals, plastics, paper, and cardboard.

  • megawatt

  • Megawatt-hour

  • micro wind turbine

  • square meter kelvins per watt (a measure of thermal resistance, also called R-value)

  • nitrous oxide

  • The enclosed housing at the top of a wind turbine tower that contains the main mechanical and electrical components of the turbine.

  • A commitment from a country to reduce national emissions and/or sequester carbon in alignment with global climate goals under the Paris Agreement, including plans for adapting to climate impacts.

  • A gaseous form of hydrocarbons consisting mainly of methane.

  • Chemicals found in nature that are used for cooling and heating, such as CO₂, ammonia, and some hydrocarbons. They have low GWPs and are ozone friendly, making them climate-friendly refrigerants.

  • Microbial conversion of ammonia or ammonium to nitrite and then to nitrate under aerobic conditions.

  • A group of air pollutant molecules composed of nitrogen and oxygen, including NO and NO₂.

  • A greenhouse gas produced during fossil fuel combustion and agricultural and industrial processes. N₂O is hundreds of times more potent than CO₂ at trapping atmospheric heat, and it depletes stratospheric ozone.

  • Metals or alloys that do not contain significant amounts of iron.

  • Social welfare organizations, civic leagues, social clubs, labor organizations, business associations, and other not-for-profit organizations.

  • A material or energy source that relies on resources that are finite or not naturally replenished at the rate of consumption, including fossil fuels like coal, oil, and natural gas.

  • nitrogen oxides

  • nitrous oxide

  • The process of increasing the acidity of seawater, primarily caused by absorption of CO₂ from the atmosphere.

  • Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development

  • An agreement between a seller who will produce future goods and a purchaser who commits to buying them, often used as project financing for producers prior to manufacturing.

  • Waste made of plant or animal matter, including food waste and green waste.

  • organic waste

  • Protected Area

  • Productive use of wet or rewetted peatlands that does not disturb the peat layer, such as for hunting, gathering, and growing wetland-adapted crops for food, fiber, and energy.

  • A legally protected area that lacks effective enforcement or management, resulting in minimal to no conservation benefit.

  • Airborne particles composed of solids and liquids.

  • A measure of transporting one passenger over a distance of one kilometer.

  • Incentive payments to landowners or managers to conserve natural resources and promote healthy ecological functions or ecosystem services.

  • Small, hardened pieces of plastic made from cooled resin that can be melted to make new plastic products.

  • The longevity of any greenhouse gas emission reductions or removals. Solution impacts are considered permanent if the risk of reversing the positive climate impacts is low within 100 years.

  • Payments for ecosystem services

  • A mixture of hydrocarbons, small amounts of other organic compounds, and trace amounts of metals used to produce products such as fuels or plastics.

  • Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances, a class of synthetic chemicals that do not degrade easily in the environment. They can pollute the environment and can have negative impacts on human health.

  • Reduce the use of a material or practice over time.

  • Eliminate the use of a material or practice over time.

  • Plug-in hybrid electric car

  • Private, national, or multilateral organizations dedicated to providing aid through in-kind or financial donations.

  • An atmospheric reaction among sunlight, VOCs, and nitrogen oxide that leads to ground-level ozone formation. Ground-level ozone, a component of smog, harms human health and the environment.

  • The process by which sunlight is converted into electricity. When light hits certain materials, such as those in solar panels, it mobilizes electrons, creating an electric current.

  • polyisocyanurate

  • The adjustment of turbine blade angles around their long axis in which a control system rotates blades slightly forward or backward to regulate wind capture and optimize electricity generation.

  • passenger kilometer

  • particulate matter

  • Particulate matter 2.5 micrometers or less in diameter that can harm human health when inhaled.

  • Elected officials and their staff, bureaucrats, civil servants, regulators, attorneys, and government affairs professionals.

  • System in a vehicle that generates power and delivers it to the wheels. It typically includes an engine and/or motor, transmission, driveshaft, and differential.

  • Purchase Power Agreement.

  • People who most directly interface with a solution and/or determine whether the solution is used and/or available. 

  • A substance that is the starting material for a chemical reaction that forms a different substance.

  • Extraction of naturally occurring resources from the Earth, including mining, logging, and oil and gas refining. These resources can be used in raw or minimally processed forms to produce materials.

  • The process of converting inorganic matter, including carbon dioxide, into organic matter (biomass), primarily by photosynthetic organisms such as plants and algae.

  • Defined by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature as "A clearly defined geographical space, recognised, dedicated and managed, through legal or other effective means, to achieve the long-term conservation of nature with associated ecosystem services and cultural values". References to PAs here also include other effective area-based conservation measures defined by the IUCN. 

  • A process that separates and breaks down wood and other raw materials into fibers that form pulp, the base ingredient for making paper products.

  • polyurethane

  • Long-term contract between a company (the buyer) and a renewable energy producer (the seller).

  • photovoltaic

  • research and development

  • A situation in which improvements in efficiency or savings lead to consumers increasing consumption, partially or fully offsetting or exceeding the emissions or cost benefits.

  • renewable energy certificate

  • Chemical or mixture used for cooling and heating in refrigeration, air conditioning, and heat pump equipment. Refrigerants absorb and release heat as they move between states under changing pressure.

  • The amount of refrigerant needed for a particular refrigeration, air conditioning, or heat pump system.

  • A group of approaches to farming and ranching that emphasizes enhancing the health of soil by restoring its carbon content and providing other benefits to the farm and surrounding ecosystem.

  • A solution that can increase the beneficial impact of another solution through increased effectiveness, lower costs, improved adoption, enhanced global climate impact, and/or other benefits to people and nature.

  • A material or energy source that relies on naturally occuring and replenishing resources such as plant matter, wind, or sunlight.

  • A market-based instrument that tracks ownership of renewable energy generation.

  • The moldable form of raw plastic material, created by melting down waste or virgin plastics and serving as the building block for creating new plastic goods.

  • A class of animals with complex stomachs that can digest grass. Most grazing livestock are ruminants including cows, sheep, and goats along with several other species.

  • sustainable aviation fuel

  • A wetland ecosystem regularly flooded by tides and containing salt-tolerant plants, such as grasses and herbs.

  • Very large or small numbers are formatted in scientific notation. A positive exponent multiplies the number by powers of ten; a negative exponent divides the number by powers of ten.

  • Seasonal coefficient of performance

  • Sustainable Development Goals

  • Average units of heat energy released for every unit of electrical energy consumed, used to measure heat pump efficiency.

  • A practice in which multiple utility companies own and operate high-voltage power lines, sharing both costs and benefits.

  • A window consisting of one glass pane without any additional insulating layers.

  • Small-scale family farmers and other food producers, often with limited resources, usually in the tropics. The average size of a smallholder farm is two hectares (about five acres).

  • soil organic carbon

  • Carbon stored in soils, including both organic (from decomposing plants and microbes) and inorganic (from carbonate-containing minerals).

  • Carbon stored in soils in organic forms (from decomposing plants and microbes). Soil organic carbon makes up roughly half of soil organic matter by weight.

  • Biologically derived matter in soils, including living, dead, and decayed plant and microbial tissues. Soil organic matter is roughly half carbon on a dry-weight basis.

  • soil organic matter

  • A substance that takes up another liquid or gas substance, either by absorbtion or adsorption.

  • sulfur oxides

  • sulfur dioxide

  • The rate at which a climate solution physically affects the atmosphere after being deployed. At Project Drawdown, we use three categories: emergency brake (fastest impact), gradual, or delayed (slowest impact).

  • Climate regions between latitudes 23.4° to 35° above and below the equator characterized by warm summers and mild winters.

  • A polluting gas produced primarily from burning fossil fuels and industrial processes that directly harms the environment and human health.

  • A group of gases containing sulfur and oxygen that predominantly come from burning fossil fuels. They contribute to air pollution, acid rain, and respiratory health issues.

  • Processes, people, and resources involved in producing and delivering a product from supplier to end customer, including material acquisition.

  • Sport utility vehicle

  • metric ton

  • metric tons

  • Technology developers, including founders, designers, inventors, R&D staff, and creators seeking to overcome technical or practical challenges.

  • Climate regions between 35° to 50° above and below the equator characterized by moderate mean annual temperatures and distinct seasons, with warm summers and cold winters.

  • A measure of energy equivalent to the energy delivered by one trillion watts of power over one hour.

  • trifluoroacetic acid

  • trifluoroacetic acid

  • A measure of how well a material prevents heat flow, often called R-value or RSI-value for insulation. A higher R-value means better thermal performance.

  • Individuals with an established audience for their work, including public figures, experts, journalists, and educators.

  • Charges for disposal of materials paid to facility operators. Fees can be charged per ton of waste disposed or based on economic indicators such as the Consumer Price Index.

  • A window consisting of three panes of glass separated by two insulating inert gas-filled layers, providing more heat flow resistance than single or double glazing.

  • Low-latitude (23.4°S to 23.4°N) climate regions near the Equator characterized by year-round high temperatures and distinct wet and dry seasons.

  • Terawatt, equal to 1,000 gigawatts

  • terawatt-hour

  • United Nations

  • United Nations Environment Programme

  • U.S. Composting Council

  • Self-propelled machine for transporting passengers or freight on roads.

  • A measure of one vehicle traveling a distance of one kilometer.

  • Aerobic decomposition of organic waste by earthworms and microorganisms.

  • vehicle kilometer

  • volatile organic compound

  • Gases made of organic, carbon-based molecules that are readily released into the air from other solid or liquid materials. Some VOCs are greenhouse gases or can harm human health.

  • watt (a measure of power or energy transfer.)

  • Landscape waste, storm debris, wood processing residues, and recovered post-consumer wood.

  • A measure of power equal to one joule per second.

  • Aerobic decomposition of organic waste in long, narrow rows called windrows. Windrows are generally twice as long as they are wide.

  • A subset of forest ecosystems that may have sparser canopy cover,  smaller-stature trees, and/or trees characterized by basal branching rather than a single main stem.

  • extruded polystyrene

  • The rotation of the nacelle (the enclosed housing at the top of a wind turbine tower that contains the main mechanical and electrical components of the turbine) so that the rotor blades are always facing directly into the wind.

  • year

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