Cut Emissions Food, Agriculture, Land & Ocean (FALO) Shift Agriculture Practices

Reduce Crop Residue Burning

Highly Recommended
Cornfield with crop residue

Crop residues are plant materials left after harvest, such as stalks, leaves, and seed husks. Many farmers burn crop residues in the field, which emits CO₂, , methane, and nitrous oxide. Black carbon – a form of air pollution that contributes to hundreds of thousands of deaths annually– is also produced. This solution avoids the burning of crop residues through the adoption of lower-emission options including straw balers, no-till seeders that can plant through residues, and developing markets for residue products. Some promising new techniques are also under development that could further increase future adoption and effectiveness of this solution.

Last updated August 24, 2026

Solution Basics

t of crop residue burning avoided

t CO₂-eq (100-yr)/unit
1.34
units/yr
Current Not Determined 08.5×10⁷2.87×10⁸
Achievable (Low to High)

Climate Impact

Gt CO₂-eq (100-yr)/yr
Current 0 0.110.39
US$ per t CO₂-eq
-10
Emergency Brake

CO₂,  CH₄ , N₂O

Additional Benefits

183,187
    183
    • 184
    • 185
    • 186
    • 187
    • 188
191,194

Overview

When left in the field, crop residues improve soil fertility. But when burned, the residues cause serious health problems and reduce air quality. So why do so many farmers burn crop residues? In fields in which multiple crops are sown in succession in the same year, there is often not enough time for residues to decompose before the next crop is sown, making seeding difficult (Dutta et al., 2022). In many countries – including those with vast agricultural sectors, such as India and Indonesia – crop harvesting has become mechanized, but residue removal equipment has not. Low labor availability poses a further challenge, because manual residue removal is highly labor-intensive (Dutta et al., 2022). Meanwhile, a lack of markets and processing infrastructure for residues remains a barrier in many regions as well (Dutta et al., 2022). For many farmers facing the challenges noted above, burning crop residues is often the lowest-cost option (Krishna & Mkondiwa, 2023). 

Crop residue burning produces CO₂, nitrous oxide, and methane (Dong et al., 2019). It also produces black carbon – a form of particulate matter that contributes to climate change and poses very serious health concerns. In India alone, an estimated 600,000 people die each year from air pollution, which is severely impacted by widespread crop residue burning (Krishna & Mkondiwa, 2023). 

There are many alternatives to crop residue burning that produce fewer climate pollutants. One approach leaves residues in the field but circumvents seed planting issues. For example, conservation agriculture and other reduced tillage techniques – described in the Improve Annual Cropping solution – use modern equipment capable of seeding through crop residues without difficulty (Dutta et al., 2022, Kabange et al., 2023). Some promising new techniques can accelerate residue decomposition in the field to facilitate seed planting, though these techniques may generate associated emissions of their own (Krishna & Mkondiwa, 2023). 

Another approach uses straw baling equipment to harvest residues for off-farm uses. In countries with developed markets, residues that are baled or otherwise collected from the field can be used or sold for compost production, bioenergy applications, livestock feed and bedding, natural building materials, feedstock for manufacturing of paper and other products, mushroom growing substrate, and more (Dutta et al., 2022). Given that many climate solutions require biomass feedstocks, there is likely to be mounting competition for this limited resource in the near future, so increasing availability of crop residues via reduced burning is strategically advantageous (Toensmeier & Garrity, 2020).

In this analysis, we assume different approaches for the three primary sources of crop residues: maize, rice, and wheat. For maize and wheat, we assume adoption of no-till seeding equipment; for rice, we assume the use of balers. 

Impact Calculator

Adjust effectiveness and adoption using range sliders to see resulting climate impact potential.

Effectiveness

1.34
t CO2-eq (100-yr)/unit

Adoption

0
t of crop residue burning avoided/yr
Low
8.5×10⁷
High
2.87×10⁸
0
Achievable Range

Climate Impact

0.00
Gt CO₂-eq/yr (100-yr)
05
which is the equivalent of
0.00%
of global emissions

The Details

Current State

We used the IPCC methodology to determine CO₂, methane, and nitrous oxide emissions per metric ton of burning avoided, for the three main crops whose burning is tracked by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO): maize, rice, and wheat. These three crops collectively account for the majority of crop residue burning worldwide (Dong et al., 2019). We then weighted these emissions by the percentage of total burned residues that each crop represents. 

  • For methane, 0.06 t CO₂‑eq is reduced per metric ton of avoided burning of crop residues in GWP-100, and 0.18 t CO₂‑eq in GWP-20. 
  • For nitrous oxide, 0.02 t CO₂‑eq is reduced per metric ton of avoided burning of crop residues in both GWP-100 and GWP-20.
  • For CO₂, 1.27 t CO₂‑eq is reduced per metric ton of avoided burning of crop residues in both GWP-100 and GWP-20. We note that many estimates of emissions from crop residue burning do not include CO₂ because it is in balance with CO₂ removals through crop growth. We chose to include it here to ensure consistency with analysis of solutions related to biofuels. However, this approach makes the results of our analysis less comparable with national GHG inventories. 
  • The combined GWP-100 GHG total (CO₂,  nitrous oxide, and methane) is 1.34 t CO₂‑eq per metric ton of avoided burning. For GWP-20, the combined GHG total is 1.47. 

Note that we do not account for emissions stemming from alternative activities, such as the use of fuel for straw balers.

Table 1. Effectiveness at reducing emissions.

Unit: t CO₂‑eq /t burning avoided, 100-yr basis

Methane 0.06
Nitrous oxide 0.02
CO₂ 1.27
Combined total 1.34

Unit: t CO₂‑eq /t burning avoided, 20-yr basis

Methane 0.18
Nitrous oxide 0.02
CO₂ 1.27
Combined total 1.47

Agricultural financial data are generally reported in land units (US$/ha/yr). In this analysis, we convert these units to US$/t of crop residues using standard t residue/ha values from the IPCC Guidelines (Aalde et al., 2006). 

For baseline rice, we assume the initial cost to be US$0.0/t because rice production is already established. Profit per hectare is based on regional figures from Damania et al. (2023), with a weighted average of US$82.5/t. Because initial cost is zero, net cost is US$82.5/t. Initial cost of reduced rice straw burning is based on purchase of rice baling equipment, assuming each baler serves 500 ha. The initial cost is US$4.55/t, profit is US$87.3/t, and net cost is –US$87.3/t.

For wheat, we assume adoption of no-till seeders, an important strategy to reduce burning given that it permits planting into crop residues (Dutta et al., 2022, Kabange et al., 2023, Kaur et al., 2022). The cost is based on purchase of a no-till seeder. Baseline initial cost is US$0.00/t. Profit per hectare is based on regional figures from Damania et al. (2023). Baseline profit is US$7.69/t and net cost is –US$7.69/t. No-till wheat’s initial cost is US$2.32/t, profit is US$40.7/t, and net cost is –US$43.0/t.

For maize, we assume no-till seeders, as for wheat. The prices per metric ton are different because of different values for t/ha of residue from IPCC (Dong et al., 2019). The cost is based on purchase of a no-till seeder. Baseline initial cost per metric ton is US$0.0. Profit per hectare is based on regional figures from Damania et al. (2023); profit is US$7.69/t, and net cost is –US$7.69/t. No-till maize’s initial cost is US$0.93/t. Profit is US$16.20/t, and net cost is –US$17.2/t.

We used a weighted average based on total t burned globally. Baseline initial values are US$0.0/t, profits are US$25.1/t, and net cost is –US$25.1/t. For reduced burning, the weighted initial cost is US$2.0/t, profit is US$3.4/t, and net cost is –US$38.8/t. 

Finally, cost per metric ton CO₂ is –US$10.2/t CO₂‑eq. Note that these are costs to the farmer; including the negative costs of health improvements and environmental benefits associated with reduced burning would make the practice even more economically desirable. See table 2.

Table 2. Cost per unit of climate impact.

Unit: 2023 US$/t CO₂‑eq , 100-yr basis

Median -10.2

Learning curve data are not available for reduced crop residue burning. However, it is likely that learning curves do exist for the baling and no-till seeding equipment modeled.

Speed of action refers to how quickly a climate solution physically affects the atmosphere after it is deployed. This is different from speed of deployment, which is the pace at which solutions are adopted.

At Project Drawdown, we define the speed of action for each climate solution as emergency brake, gradual, or delayed.

Reduce Crop Residue Burning is an EMERGENCY BRAKE climate solution. It has the potential to deliver a more rapid impact than gradual and delayed solutions. Because emergency brake solutions can deliver their climate benefits quickly, they can help accelerate our efforts to address dangerous levels of climate change. For this reason, they are a high priority.

Adoption

Because the amount of crop residues burned each year globally is on the rise, we have not quantified current adoption (FAO, n.d.). From 2002–2022, residues burned increased 22% (67 Mt). See Table 3.

Table 3. Current adoption level.

Unit: t of crop residue burning avoided

Median (50th percentile) not determined

We used FAO data showing metric tons burned for each year by country, for the three crops – maize, rice, and wheat – that account for the majority of burning (FAO, n.d.). We compared this to metric tons of those crops produced each year, and calculated the ratio of metric tons burned to metric tons produced, to make sure that reduced production of those crops did not appear as reduced burning. We express this as the “burn ratio,” which is metric tons of residues burned over total metric tons of residues produced.

During the past 20 years, the total metric tons of crop residues burned per year has increased, even as the percent of residues burned has decreased. This is because the total amount of crop residues has grown as the total cropping area – and crop yields per hectare – have increased. 

French Polynesia, Haiti, and Cameroon share the lowest burn ratios (ratio of metric tons of residue burned to metric tons of crops produced). Each country burns only 1% of crop residues. We have chosen this rate of 99% of residues unburned as our adoption ceiling. Applying this 99% reduction to our total metric tons burned per year provides an adoption ceiling of 364 Mt of burning avoided per year. See Table 4.

Table 4. Adoption ceiling.

Unit: Mt of crop residue burning avoided/yr

Median (50th percentile) 364

The FAO (n.d.) found that Turkmenistan has the highest percent reduction of total crop residue burning of any country, with 77.8% over a 20-year period – a reduction of 18,900 t. We use Turkmenistan’s rate of reduction as our Achievable – High level of adoption. Note that other countries had higher total metric tonnage of burning avoided – with South Africa at the highest, at 894,000 t of burning avoided, but this was a smaller percent reduction than that of Turkmenistan. Applying Turkmenistan’s rate to the total global amount burned would provide a reduction of 287 Mt/yr.

While total global metric tons of crop residues burned is increasing, the burn rate decreased 23% between 1998–2002 and 2018–2022. We used this global average reduction rate of 23% for our Achievable – Low level of adoption. Applying this rate to the total global amount burned would provide a reduction of 85 Mt/yr. See Table 5.

Table 5. Range of achievable adoption levels.

Unit: Mt of avoided crop residue burning/yr

Current adoption 0
Achievable – low 85
Achievable - high 287
Adoption ceiling 364

Impacts

The GHG climate impact of current adoption is 0.00 Gt CO₂‑eq/yr for all cases because current adoption is not determined (Table 6a–d). 

The GHG climate impact for Achievable – Low adoption is 0.11 Gt CO₂‑eq/yr (100-yr basis). The climate impact for Achievable – High adoption is 0.39 Gt CO₂‑eq/yr (100-yr basis). The climate impact for the Adoption Ceiling is 0.49 Gt CO₂‑eq/yr (100-yr basis). See Table 6a.

Meanwhile, climate impacts for GWP-20 at Achievable – Low adoption levels in GWP-20 are 0.12 Gt CO₂‑eq/yr, while climate impacts for GWP-20 at Achievable – High adoption levels in GWP-20 are 0.42 Gt CO₂‑eq/yr. Climate impacts for GWP-20 for the Adoption Ceiling in GWP-20 are 0.53 Gt CO₂‑eq/yr. See Table 6b.

Table 6. Climate impact at different levels of adoption.

Unit: GtCO₂‑eq/yr

Current adoption 0.00
Achievable – low 0.11
Achievable – high 0.39
Adoption ceiling 0.49

Unit: GtCO₂‑eq/yr

Current adoption 0.00
Achievable – low 0.12
Achievable – high 0.42
Adoption ceiling 0.53

Income and Work

Sustainable crop residue management can not only reduce morbidity and mortality, but also significantly reduce health costs associated with crop residue burning (Raza et al., 2022). Farmers can increase revenues by adopting alternative practices that use crop residues instead of burning them, such as selling residues or producing biochar or bio-oils (Na Talang et al., 2024). 

Health

Poor air quality stemming from crop residue burning is harmful to health, and has demonstrably contributed to premature mortality in Southeast Asia (Lan et al., 2022). Air pollution from burning crop residue has been linked to eye irritation, headaches, nausea, skin irritation, allergies, respiratory infections, increased risk of lung cancer, and reduced lung function (Gupta, 2019; Huang et al., 2022; Raza et al., 2022). During burning season, farmers have reported increased severity of chronic illnesses as well as poorer productivity at work due to illness (Raza et al., 2022). Exposure to air pollution is particularly harmful for children because it can harm their development; Gupta et al. (2019) found that children living near agricultural fields had poorer lung function during periods of crop burning.

Land Resources

Crop residue burning can significantly degrade soils because burning leads to a loss of nutrients – especially nitrogen – that might otherwise be retained in the soil (Bhuvaneshwari et al., 2019). For example, in areas in northern India where crop residue burning is common, soils have very low nitrogen content compared with those in other regions of the country where crop burning is less common (Kumar et al., 2015). Burning also raises soil temperatures, which can kill beneficial microorganisms (Bhuvaneshwari et al., 2019). 

Studies have found that retaining crop residue on agricultural fields can benefit soil quality, soil organic carbon, soil moisture, nutrient cycling, and soil retention (Fu et al., 2021; Turmel et al., 2015). In experimental field sites in India and Bhutan, crop residue was used as mulch rather than burned, and agricultural production subsequently increased 36–64% (Dey et al., 2020).

Air Quality

Crop residue burning is a major source of air pollution because it generates fine particulate matter, CO₂, and carbon monoxide across regions such as South and Southeast Asia, and especially in countries including India, Pakistan, Nepal, and Bangladesh (Jain et al., 2014; Kaskaoutis et al., 2014; Lan et al., 2022; Na Talang et al., 2024; Sharma et al., 2010, Singh et al., 2022). The burning of rice straw is often the largest contributor to air pollution, followed by wheat straw, sugarcane, and corn (Jain et al., 2014; Na Talang et al., 2024). In India, crop residue burning is most common in northern states such as Punjab, Haryana, and Uttar Pradesh (Sakar et al., 2018). Because fine particulate matter and black carbon constitute a large percentage of the pollution, crop residue burning can trigger poor air quality hundreds of kilometers away from agricultural fields (Kaskaoutis et al., 2014). In fact, several studies have found that crop residue burning in northern India threatens the air quality throughout the country – especially in Delhi, the densely populated capital region (Bikkina et al., 2019; Lan et al., 2022; Sarkar et al., 2018).

Other

Caveats such as additionality and permanence do not apply to reduced crop residue burning.

For rice – mechanically harvesting of residues for off-farm use risks losses of soil fertility. There is also a risk that harvested residues will be burned off-farm, producing the same emissions and health concerns as on-field residue burning. (Dutta et al.,2022; Krishna and Mkondiwa, 2023; Raza et al., (2022); Singh et al., 2022. 

We assume wheat and maize production shifts to retaining residue in fields and subsequently uses no-till seeding equipment to plant through the residues. Risks associated with this practice include increased herbicide use (Clapp, 2021). 

To maintain soil organic carbon levels, it is necessary to retain half of crop residues on the field. This practice applies to maize, rice, and wheat (Lorenz & Lal, 2018).

Reinforcing

This solution increases the supply of crop residues. In turn, this makes more raw material available for the following solutions:

Consensus of effectiveness in reducing GHG emissions: High 

There is high consensus on the effectiveness and potential of reducing crop residue burning. The 2019 Refinement to the 2006 U.N. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories provides clear formulas to calculate the impact of crop residue burning as well as the impact of limiting the practice (Dong et al., 2019). With the latest IPCC chapter on agricultural mitigation identifying crop residue burning as an important driver of global warming, advancing viable alternatives to the practice is vital (Nabuurs et al., 2022). Overviews of the alternatives to crop residue burning are provided by Dutta e. al. (2022), Krishna and Mkondiwa (2023), Singh et al. (2022), and Raza et al. (2022). 

The results presented in this analysis summarize findings from five reviews and meta-analyses reflecting current evidence at the global scale. Nonetheless, not all countries are represented. We recognize this limited geographic scope creates bias, and hope this work inspires research and data sharing on this topic in underrepresented regions. 

Take Action

Looking to get involved? Below are some key actions for this solution that can get you started, arranged according to different roles you may play in your professional or personal life.

These actions are meant to be starting points for involvement and are not intended to be prescriptive or necessarily suggest they are the most important or impactful actions to take. We encourage you to explore and get creative!

Lawmakers and Policymakers
  • Set national targets for reducing crop burning and incorporate them into planning documents, such as Nationally Determined Contributions.
  • Consult with farmers, businesses, and the public to determine the best way to reduce crop residue burning.
  • Use disincentives and incentives to stop crop residue burning, such as bans coupled with subsidies, no-interest loans, and educational programs.
  • Ensure bans are effectively enforced, but make sure that they are not the sole means of action.
  • Make sure subsidy programs are simple, disburse quickly, provide significant, practical assistance for farmers, and empower farmers to choose how they reduce burning. 
  • Work with businesses to ensure they don’t raise prices after introducing subsidies, using price caps if necessary and appropriate.
  • Collaborate with equipment rental companies to strengthen services, improve infrastructure, and apply financial incentives, such as subsidies to rentals.
  • Ensure educational programs provide ongoing technical support and offer farmers access to local academics and scientists.
  • Amend legislation and regulations that may inadvertently incentivize crop burning; allow farmers greater flexibility in selecting crops and choosing planting times.
  • Enhance infrastructure and education around alternatives to burning crop residue, such as composting, baling, mulching, introducing microorganisms, incorporating residue into the soil, or other off-field applications, such as animal feed or biochar.
  • Invest in R&D to find innovative uses for crop residue and identify the most impactful interventions at the local level.
  • Invest in R&D to develop applications for crop residue in building materials, such as cement mixes, insulation, and paper products; build out the infrastructure for these programs, if optimal.
  • Work with the private sector to develop markets for crop residue in order to limit burning.
  • Create model farms to demonstrate techniques, conduct experiments, and educate local farmers with regard to alternatives to crop residue burning.
  • Implement government programs that can collect and/or manage crop residue at no cost to farmers.
  • Join, create, or participate in partnerships or certification programs dedicated to the sustainable use of crop residue.

Further information:

Practitioners
  • View crop residue as a valuable output – and potential direct or indirect revenue source – rather than as a waste product.
  • Avoid burning crop residue, and find alternative methods for using residue, such as composting, mulching, introducing microorganisms, incorporating residue into the soil, or other off-field applications, such as biochar.
  • Engage with policymakers and advocate for policy and legal changes to facilitate crop residue burning alternatives.
  • Take advantage of financial incentives, such as tax rebates and subsidies, that advance alternatives to crop residue burning.
  • Collaborate with the private sector to develop markets for crop residue in order to limit burning.
  • Work with policymakers and private organizations to strengthen data collection related to crop residue quantities and feasible alternatives to burning.
  • Explore options for crop residue use, such as anaerobic digesters, and work with policymakers and businesses to form relevant partnerships to advance these alternatives to crop residue burning.
  • Help revise existing – or create new – high-integrity carbon markets, institutions, rules, and norms to grow demand for high-quality carbon credits.
  • Join, create, or participate in partnerships or certification programs dedicated to the sustainable use of crop residue.

Further information:

Business Leaders
  • Work with agricultural supply chain sources to ensure partners employ, measure, and report on methods to reduce burning crop residue.
  • Integrate the reduction of burning crop residue into supply chain targets and policies.
  • Prioritize and monitor suppliers who commit to eliminate or reduce crop residue burning.
  • Do not raise prices on farmers if your products or services are subsidized. 
  • Help innovate uses for crop residue, develop markets, and promote products that offer alternatives to burning. 
  • Educate consumers about the importance of finding alternative uses for crop residue.
  • Enter into offtake agreements for crop residue with alternative uses, as well as for crop residue derivative products.
  • Offer financial services – including low-interest loans, microfinancing, and grants – to support alternatives to burning crop residue.
  • Help revise existing – or create new – high-integrity carbon markets, institutions, rules, and norms for crop residue.
  • Invest in companies that develop technologies supporting alternatives to crop residue burning, such as equipment, circular supply chains, and consumer products.
  • Fund startups that aim to improve markets for crop residue, develop innovative applications for the material, or improve crop residue removal practices.
  • Invest in R&D to develop applications for crop residue in building materials, such as cement mixes, insulation, and paper products; build out the infrastructure for these programs, if optimal.
  • Work with farmers, policymakers, and private organizations to strengthen data collection related to crop residue quantities and feasible alternatives to burning.
  • Engage with policymakers to make the case for policy and legal changes that can facilitate adoption of alternatives to crop burning.
  • Join, create, or participate in partnerships or certification programs dedicated to the sustainable use of crop residue.

Further information:

Nonprofit Leaders
  • Work with farm owners to ensure partners employ methods to reduce burning crop residue, if relevant.
  • Manage and operate government programs to collect and manage crop residue.
  • Consult with farmers, policymakers, businesses, and the public to determine the best way to reduce crop residue burning at the local level.
  • Start cooperatives that provide or rent equipment and/or services for crop residue management.
  • Create model farms to demonstrate techniques, conduct experiments, and educate local farmers with regard to alternatives to crop residue burning.
  • Help revise existing – or create new – high-integrity carbon markets, institutions, rules, and norms for crop residue.
  • Engage with businesses to encourage corporate responsibility and/or monitor agriculture supply chains.
  • Help innovate uses for crop residue, develop markets, and promote products that offer alternatives to burning. 
  • Engage with policymakers to make the case for policy and legal changes that can facilitate adoption of alternatives to crop burning.
  • Educate farmers, policymakers, businesses, and consumers about the importance of using crop residue.
  • Manage local extension programs or implement government programs that collect and/or manage crop residue, at no cost to farmers.
  • Work with farmers, policymakers, and other private organizations to strengthen data collection on crop residue quantities and feasible alternatives to burning.
  • Join, create, or participate in partnerships or certification programs dedicated to the sustainable use of crop residue.

Further information:

Investors
  • Ensure relevant portfolio companies use alternatives to crop burning; place pressure on noncompliant portfolio companies.
  • Enter into offtake agreements for crop residue or associated products.
  • Offer financial services – including low-interest loans, microfinancing, and grants – to support alternatives to burning crop residue.
  • Invest in companies developing technologies that support alternatives to crop residue burning, such as equipment, circular supply chains, and consumer products.
  • Fund start-ups that aim to improve markets for crop residue, develop innovative applications for the material, or improve crop residue removal practices.
  • Invest in R&D to develop applications for crop residue in building materials, such as cement mixes, insulation, and paper products; build out the infrastructure for these programs, if optimal.
  • Join, create, or participate in partnerships or certification programs dedicated to the sustainable use of crop residue.

Further information:

Philanthropists and International Aid Agencies
  • If relevant, work with agricultural supply chain sources to ensure partners employ various methods to reduce crop residue burning.
  • Enter into offtake agreements for crop residue or associated products.
  • Offer financial services – including low-interest loans, micro-financing, and grants – to support alternatives to burning crop residue.
  • Invest in companies developing technologies that support alternatives to crop residue burning, such as equipment, circular supply chains, and consumer products.
  • Fund startups that aim to improve markets for crop residue, develop innovative applications for the material, or improve crop residue removal practices.
  • Invest in R&D to develop applications for crop residue in building materials, such as cement mixes, insulation, and paper products; build out the infrastructure for these programs, if optimal.
  • Manage and operate government programs to collect and manage crop residue.
  • Conduct robust consultations with farmers, policymakers, businesses, and the public to determine the best way to reduce burning crop residue at the local level.
  • Start cooperatives that provide equipment and/or services for crop residue management.
  • Create model farms to demonstrate techniques, conduct experiments, and educate local farmers with regard to alternatives to crop residue burning.
  • Help revise existing – or create new – high-integrity carbon markets, institutions, rules, and norms for crop residue.
  • Engage with businesses to encourage corporate responsibility and/or monitor agriculture supply chains.
  • Help innovate uses for crop residue, develop markets, and promote products that offer alternatives to burning. 
  • Engage with policymakers to make the case for policy and legal changes that can facilitate adoption of alternatives to crop burning.
  • Educate farmers, policymakers, businesses, and consumers about the importance of using crop residue.
  • Manage local extension programs or implement government programs that collect and/or manage crop residue, at no cost to farmers.
  • Work with farmers, policymakers, and other private organizations to strengthen data collection on crop residue quantities and feasible alternatives to burning.
  • Join, create, or participate in partnerships or certification programs dedicated to the sustainable use of crop residue.

Further information:

Thought Leaders
  • Start cooperatives that provide equipment and/or services for crop residue management.
  • Create model farms to demonstrate techniques, conduct experiments, and educate local farmers with regard to alternatives to crop residue burning.
  • Engage with businesses to encourage corporate responsibility and/or monitor agriculture supply chains.
  • Engage with policymakers to make the case for policy and legal changes that can facilitate alternatives to crop burning.
  • Help develop markets for crop residue and promote products that offer alternatives to burning. 
  • Educate farmers, policymakers, businesses, and consumers about the importance of using crop residue.
  • Help innovate uses for crop residue, develop markets, and promote products that offer alternatives to burning. 
  • Help revise existing – or create new – high-integrity carbon markets, institutions, rules, and norms for crop residue.
  • Work with farmers, policymakers, and other private organizations to strengthen data collection on crop residue quantities and feasible alternatives to burning.
  • Join, create, or participate in partnerships or certification programs dedicated to the sustainable use of crop residue.

Further information:

Technologists and Researchers
  • Quantify estimates of crop residue by geography and differentiate data by full or partial burning.
  • Research organic no-till methods of cultivation to retain residue in-field without herbicide use.
  • Create tracking and monitoring software to support farmers' decision-making for planting, real-time market information, and locally available services.
  • Research potential applications of AI and robotics to achieve optimal uses for crop residue, considering factors such as local soil quality and markets.
  • Improve data and analytics to monitor available crop residue, assist farmers in residue management, support policymaking, and assess the impacts of policies.
  • Research and develop innovative uses of crop residue, particularly in Africa, where data is currently lacking.
  • Research the impact of interventions in specific geographies and identify the most impactful means of reducing crop residue burning.
  • Research crop residue use for enzyme production and refine the process to make it scalable and easily accessible to farmers.
  • Develop verifiable carbon credits using technology such as blockchain to improve the integrity of carbon markets.

Further information:

Communities, Households, and Individuals
  • Buy produce from farms that use their crop residue in alternative ways, or ask merchants to supply these products to increase demand.
  • Educate farmers, policymakers, businesses, and consumers about the impact of crop residue burning at the local level – especially if it impacts you or your community.
  • Engage with businesses to encourage corporate responsibility and/or monitor agriculture supply chains.
  • Work with farmers, policymakers, and other private organizations to strengthen data collection on crop residue quantities and feasible alternatives to burning.
  • Engage with policymakers to make the case for policy and legal changes that can facilitate adoption of alternatives to crop burning.
  • Join, create, or participate in partnerships or certification programs dedicated to the sustainable use of crop residue.

Further information:

“Take Action” Sources

References

Aalde, H., Gonzalez, P., Gytarsky, M., Krug, T., Kurz, W. A., Lasco, R. D., Martino, D. L., McConkey, B. G., Ogle, S., Paustian, K., Raison, J., Ravindranath, N. H., Schoene, D., Smith, P., Somogyi, Z., van Amstel, A., & Verchot, L. (2006). Chapter 2: Generic methodologies applicable to multiple land-use categories. In 2006 IPCC guidelines for national greenhouse gas inventories (Vol. 4, pp. 2.1–2.59). Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Link to source: https://www.ipcc-nggip.iges.or.jp/public/2006gl/pdf/4_Volume4/V4_02_Ch2_Generic.pdf

Bhuvaneshwari, S., Hettiarachchi, H., & Meegoda, J. N. (2019). Crop residue burning in India: Policy challenges and potential solutions. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16(5), 832. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16050832

Bikkina, S., Andersson, A., Kirillova, E. N., Holmstrand, H., Tiwari, S., Srivastava, A. K., Bisht, D. S., & Gustafsson, Ö. (2019). Air quality in megacity Delhi affected by countryside biomass burning. Nature Sustainability, 2(3), 200–205. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41893-019-0219-0

Bond, T. C., Doherty, S. J., Fahey, D. W., Forster, P. M., Berntsen, T., DeAngelo, B. J., Flanner, M. G., Ghan, S., Kärcher, B., Koch, D., Kinne, S., Kondo, Y., Quinn, P. K., Sarofim, M. C., Schultz, M. G., Schulz, M., Verkataraman, C., Zhang, H., Zhang, S., … Zender, C. S. (2013). Bounding the role of black carbon in the climate system: A scientific assessment. Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres, 118(11), 5380–5552. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1002/jgrd.50171 

Clapp, J. (2021). Explaining growing glyphosate use: The political economy of herbicide-dependent agriculture. Global Environmental Change, 67, Article 102239. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2021.102239

Damania, R., Polasky, S., Ruckelshaus, M., Russ, J., Amann, M., Chaplin-Kramer, R., Gerber, J., Hawthorne, P., Heger, M. P., Mamun, S., Ruta, G., Schmitt, R., Smith, J., Vogl, A., Wagner, F., & Zaveri, E. (2023). Nature’s frontiers: Achieving sustainability, efficiency, and prosperity with natural capital [Report]. World Bank Group. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1596/978-1-4648-1923-0 

Dey, D., Gyeltshen, T., Aich, A., Naskar, M., & Roy, A. (2020). Climate adaptive crop-residue management for soil-function improvement; recommendations from field interventions at two agro-ecological zones in South Asia. Environmental Research, 183, 109164. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2020.109164

Dong, H., MacDonald, J. D., Ogle, S. M., Sanz Sanchez, M. J., & Rocha, M. T. (2019). Agriculture, forestry, and other land use. In E. Calvo Buendia, K. Tanabe, A. Kranjc, J. Baasansuren, M. Fukuda, S. Ngarize, A. Osako, Y. Pyrozhenko, P. Shermanau, & S. Federici (Eds.), 2019 Refinement to the 2006 IPCC guidelines for national greenhouse gas inventories (Vol. 4). Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Link to source: https://www.ipcc-nggip.iges.or.jp/public/2019rf/vol4.html 

Dutta, A., Patra, A., Hazra, K. K., Nath, C. P., Kumar, N., & Rakshit, A. (2022). A state of the art review in crop residue burning in India: Previous knowledge, present circumstances and future strategies. Environmental Challenges, 8, Article 100581. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envc.2022.100581

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. (n.d.). FAO-FAOSTAT: Food and agriculture data [Data set]. Retrieved December 12, 2025, from Link to source: https://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#home 

Fu, B., Chen, L., Huang, H., Qu, P., & Wei, Z. (2021). Impacts of crop residues on soil health: A review. Environmental Pollutants and Bioavailability, 33(1), 164–173. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1080/26395940.2021.1948354

Gupta, S. (2019). Agriculture crop residue burning and its consequences on respiration health of school-going children. Global Pediatric Health, 6, 2333794X19874679. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1177/2333794X19874679

Huang, T., Ma, J., Song, S., Ling, Z., Macdonald, R. W., Gao, H., Tao, S., Shen, H., Zhao, Y., Liu, X., Tian, C., Li, Y., Jia, H., Lian, L., & Mao, X. (2022). Health and environmental consequences of crop residue burning correlated with increasing crop yields midst India’s Green Revolution. Npj Climate and Atmospheric Science, 5(1), 81. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41612-022-00306-x

Jain, N., Bhatia, A., & Pathak, H. (2014). Emission of air pollutants from crop residue burning in India. Aerosol and Air Quality Research, 14(1), 422–430. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.4209/aaqr.2013.01.0031

Kabange, N. R., Kwon, Y., Lee, S.-M., Kang, J.-W., Cha, J.-K., Park, H., Dzorkpe, G. D., Shin, D., Oh, K.-W., & Lee, J.-H. (2023). Mitigating greenhouse gas emissions from crop production and management practices, and livestock: A review. Sustainability, 15(22), Article 15889. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.3390/su152215889

Kaskaoutis, D. G., Kumar, S., Sharma, D., Singh, R. P., Kharol, S. K., Sharma, M., Singh, A. K., Singh, S., Singh, A., & Singh, D. (2014). Effects of crop residue burning on aerosol properties, plume characteristics, and long‐range transport over northern India. Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres, 119(9), 5424–5444. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1002/2013JD021357

Kaur, M., Malik, D. P., Malhi, G. S., Sardana, V., Bolan, N. S., Lal, R., & Siddique, K. H. M. (2022). Rice residue management in the Indo-Gangetic Plains for climate and food security: A review. Agronomy for Sustainable Development, 42(92). Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1007/s13593-022-00817-0

Krishna, V. V., & Mkondiwa, M. (2023). Economics of crop residue management. Annual Review of Resource Economics, 15(1), 19–39. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-resource-101422-090019 

Kumar, P., Kumar, S., & Joshi, L. (2015). Socioeconomic and Environmental Implications of Agricultural Residue Burning. Springer India. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-81-322-2014-5

Lan, R., Eastham, S. D., Liu, T., Norford, L. K., & Barrett, S. R. H. (2022). Air quality impacts of crop residue burning in India and mitigation alternatives. Nature Communications, 13(1), 6537. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-022-34093-z

Lorenz, K., & Lal, R. (2018). Carbon sequestration in agricultural ecosystems (1st ed.). Springer. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-92318-5 

Nabuurs, G.-J., Mrabet, R., Hatab, A. A., Bustamante, M., Clark, H., Havlík, P., House, J. I., Mbow, C., Ninan, K. N., Popp, A., Roe, S., Sohngen, B., & Towprayoon, S. (2022). Agriculture, forestry and other land uses (AFOLU). In P. R. Shukla, J. Skea, R. Slade, A. Al Khourdajie, R. van Diemen, D. McCollum, M. Pathak, S. Some, P. Vyas, R. Fradera, M. Belkacemi, A. Hasija, G. Lisboa, S. Luz, & J. Malley (Eds.), Climate change 2022: Mitigation of climate change. Contribution of working group III to the sixth assessment report of the intergovernmental panel on climate change (pp. 747–860). Cambridge University Press. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009157926.009 

Prateep Na Talang, R., Na Sorn, W., Polruang, S., & Sirivithayapakorn, S. (2024). Alternative crop residue management practices to mitigate the environmental and economic impacts of open burning of agricultural residues. Scientific Reports, 14(1), 14372. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-65389-3

Raza, M. H., Abid, M., Faisal, M., Yan, T., Akhtar, S., & Adnan, K. M. M. (2022). Environmental and health impacts of crop residue burning: Scope of sustainable crop residue management practices. International Journal of Environmental Research for Public Health, 19(8), Article 4753. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19084753

Sarkar, S., Singh, R. P., & Chauhan, A. (2018). Increasing health threat to greater parts of India due to crop residue burning. The Lancet Planetary Health, 2(8), e327–e328. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1016/S2542-5196(18)30166-9

Sharma, A. R., Kharol, S. K., K. V. S. Badarinath, & Darshan Singh. (2010). Impact of agriculture crop residue burning on atmospheric aerosol loading – a study over Punjab State, India. Annales Geophysicae, 28(2), 367–379. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.5194/angeo-28-367-2010

Singh, D., Dhiman, S. K., Kumar, V., Babu, R., Shree, K., Priyadarshani, A., Singh, A., Shakya, L., Nautiyal, A., & Saluja, S. (2022). Crop residue burning and its relationship between health, agriculture value addition, and regional finance. Atmosphere, 13(9), Article 1405. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos13091405

Toensmeier, E., & Garrity, D. (2020). The biomass bottleneck. Scientific American, 323(2), 64–72. Link to source: https://www.jstor.org/stable/27411753 

Turmel, M.-S., Speratti, A., Baudron, F., Verhulst, N., & Govaerts, B. (2015). Crop residue management and soil health: A systems analysis. Agricultural Systems, 134, 6–16. Link to source: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agsy.2014.05.009

Credits

Lead Fellows 

  • Eric Toensmeier

Contributors

  • Daniel Jasper

  • Ruthie Borrows, Ph.D.

Internal Reviewers

  • James Gerber Ph.D.

  • Sarah Gleeson Ph.D.

  • Paul West, Ph.D.

Methods and Supporting Data

Methods and Supporting Data

Comments / Questions

  • Greenhouse gas quantity expressed relative to CO₂ with the same warming impact over 100 years, calculated by multiplying emissions by the 100-yr GWP for the emitted gases.

  • Greenhouse gas quantity expressed relative to CO₂ with the same warming impact over 20 years, calculated by multiplying emissions by the 20-yr GWP for the emitted gases.

  • 8th World Congress on Conservation Agriculture

  • Reducing greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere by preventing or reducing emissions.

  • A liquid with a low pH (below 7).

  • The process of increasing acidity.

  • The extent to which emissions reduction or carbon removal is above and beyond what would have occurred without implementing a particular action or solution.

  • An upper limit on solution adoption based on physical or technical constraints, not including economic or policy barriers. This level is unlikely to be reached and will not be exceeded.

  • The quantity and metric to measure implementation for a particular solution that is used as the reference unit for calculations within that solution.

  • A composting method in which organic waste is processed in freestanding piles that can be aerated actively with forced air or passively by internal convection.

  • The interactions of aerodynamic forces and flexible structures, often including the stucture's control system.

  • A process in which microbes break down organic materials in the presence of oxygen. This process converts food and green waste into nutrient-rich compost.

  • Establishment of new forests in areas that did not historically support forests.

  • Farming practices that work to create socially and ecologically sustainable food production.

  • Addition of trees and shrubs to crop or animal farming systems.

  • Artificial intelligence

  • Spread out the cost of an asset over its useful lifetime.

  • A process in which microorganisms break down organic material in the absence of oxygen. Methane and CO₂ are the main byproducts.

  • A crop that live one year or less from planting to harvest; also called annual.

  • Lacking dissolved oxygen but containing other sources of oxygen bound within molecules that can be stripped and used by microorganisms.

  • aerated static piles

  • Hardware required to support PV modules and arrays, including racking and mounting structures, wires, and other physical components.

  • Building automation system

  • Electric power delivered at a steady, around-the-clock rate, to cover power demand that exists at all times. Baseload power is typically supplied by high availability, low operating-cost plants, such as nuclear or geothermal.

  • A liquid with a high pH (above 7).

  • black carbon

  • Solar panels that generate electricity from sunlight captured on both sides, increasing energy output by reflecting light from the ground and surroundings.

  • Made from material of biological origin, such as plants, animals, or other organisms.

  • A renewable energy source generated from organic matter from plants and/or algae.

  • An energy source composed primarily of methane and CO₂ that is produced by microorganisms when organic matter decomposes in the absence of oxygen.

  • Carbon stored in biological matter, including soil, plants, fungi, and plant products (e.g., wood, paper, biofuels). This carbon is sequestered from the atmosphere but can be released through decomposition or burning.

  • Living or dead renewable matter from plants or animals, not including organic material transformed into fossil fuels. Peat, in early decay stages, is partially renewable biomass.

  • Biogas refined to the same quality as natural gas. CO₂ and impurities are removed, and the biomethane can be distributed and used in existing natural gas technologies.
     

  • A type of carbon sequestration that captures carbon from CO₂ via photosynthesis and stores it in soils, sediments, and biomass, distinct from sequestration through chemical or industrial pathways.

  • A synthetic organic compound used to make a type of hard, clear plastic for food and drink packaging and many consumer goods.

  • A climate pollutant, also called soot, produced from incomplete combustion of organic matter, either naturally (wildfires) or from human activities (biomass or fossil fuel burning).

  • A secure, decentralized way of digitally tracking transactions that could be used to improve the transparency and efficiency of carbon markets. 

  • Fixed income debt instruments focused on sustainable ocean projects. Blue bonds work in the same manner as traditional bonds and may be issued by corporations, financial institutions, and governments.

  • A global initiative launched by Germany and the IUCN in 2011 to restore 150 Mha of land by 2020 and 350 Mha by 2030.

  • High-latitude (>50°N or >50°S) climate regions characterized by short growing seasons and cold temperatures.

  • Balance-of-system

  • bisphenol A

  • Revenue from carbon credits reserved for payout to land- and rights-holders in the event of a disturbance such as a fire; similar to insurance scheme.

  • The components of a building that physically separate the indoors from the outdoor environment.

  • Businesses involved in the sale and/or distribution of solution-related equipment and technology, and businesses that want to support adoption of the solution.

  • Compound annual growth rate

  • A chemical reaction involving heating a solid to a high temperature; to make cement clinker, limestone is calcined into lime in a process that requires high heat and produces CO₂.

  • The ratio of the actual electricity an energy technology generates over a period of time to the maximum it could have produced if it operated continuously at full capacity.

  • A four-wheeled passenger vehicle.

  • Average number of people traveling in a car per trip.

  • Technologies that collect CO₂ before it enters the atmosphere, preventing emissions at their source. Collected CO₂ can be used onsite or in new products, or stored long term to prevent release.

  • A greenhouse gas that is naturally found in the atmosphere. Its atmospheric concentration has been increasing due to human activities, leading to warming and climate impacts.

  • Total GHG emissions resulting from a particular action, material, technology, or sector.

  • Amount of GHG emissions released per activity or unit of production. 

  • A marketplace where carbon credits are purchased and sold. One carbon credit represents activities that avoid, reduce, or remove one metric ton of GHG emissions.

  • A colorless, odorless gas released during the incomplete combustion of fuels containing carbon. Carbon monoxide can harm health and be fatal at high concentrations.

  • The time it takes for the emissions reduction from a measure to equal the emissions invested in implementing the measure.

  • Activities or technologies that pull CO₂ out of the atmosphere, including enhancing natural carbon sinks and deploying engineered sinks.

  • Long-term storage of carbon in soils, sediment, biomass, oceans, and geologic formations after removal of CO₂ from the atmosphere or CO₂ capture from industrial and power generation processes.

  • The interconnected pool of dissolved inorganic carbon forms in water. Composed of dissolved CO₂, carbonic acid, bicarbonate ions, and carbonate ions.

  • The stocking rate a pasture can sustain without degrading forage supply or vegetation condition.

  • carbon capture and storage

  • carbon capture, utilization, and storage

  • Cooling degree days

  • A binding ingredient in concrete responsible for most of concrete’s life-cycle emissions. Cement is made primarily of clinker mixed with other mineral components.

  • chlorofluorocarbon

  • Processes that use chemical reactions or heat to break down plastic waste into basic molecular components or feedstocks that can then be used to make new plastic products.

  • Process that uses chemical reactions or heat to break down plastic waste into basic molecular components that can be used to make new plastic products.

  • methane

  • A system in which resources, materials, and products are used for as long as possible through reuse, repair, refurbishment, and recycling.

  • Energy sources that have little to no negative environmental or climate impacts during operation relative to fossil fuel–based energy sources.

  • A factor that warms or cools the planet.

  • Gases or particles that have a planet-warming effect when released to the atmosphere. Some climate pollutants also cause other forms of environmental damage.

  • Areas that have natural buffers from local climate change impacts, offering safe havens for species and ecosystems.

  • A binding ingredient in cement responsible for most of the life-cycle emissions from cement and concrete production.

  • A waste management process where waste is made into the same original product, preserving quality and value so materials can be reused multiple times while keeping resources in continuous use.

  • A system that encompasses both forward supply chains (from producer to consumer) and reverse logistics for reuse, recycling, or proper disposal.

  • Neighbors, volunteer organizations, hobbyists and interest groups, online communities, early adopters, individuals sharing a home, and private citizens seeking to support the solution.

  • A solution that potentially lowers the benefit of another solution through reduced effectiveness, higher costs, reduced or delayed adoption, or diminished global climate impact.

  • The average annual rate at which a value grows over a specified period, assuming profits are reinvested and growth occurs steadily each year.

  • Funding with substantially more generous terms than market loans (typically due to lower interest rates, longer repayment periods, or partial grants) used to support projects with public or development benefits.

  • A farming system that combines reduced tillage, cover crops, and crop rotations.

  • The proportion of water used or applied that is evaporated, transpired, or incorporated into a product and therefore is not returned to the local hydrological system through runoff or leaching.

  • Risk-sharing financial agreements in which two parties (e.g., renewable generator, government) guarantee a fixed price (e.g., electricity price). If market prices fluctuate, one party pays the other the difference.

  • Persistent long, thin clouds that form behind aircraft when water vapor in the exhaust condenses, then freezes into ice crystals at high altitudes. 

  • A measure of the total space cooling demand to maintain an indoor temperature below 24 °C

  • carbon dioxide

  • A  measure standardizing the warming effects of greenhouse gases relative to CO₂. CO₂-eq is calculated as quantity (metric tons) of a particular gas multiplied by its GWP.

  • carbon dioxide equivalent

  • Plant materials left over after a harvest, such as stalks, leaves, and seed husks.

  • A granular material made by crushing broken or waste glass.

  • direct air capture

  • Financial agreements in which government creditors forgive a portion of debt in exchange for specific conservation commitments.

  • The process of cutting greenhouse gas emissions (primarily CO₂) from a particular sector or activity.

  • An industrial process that removes printing ink from used or waste paper fibers, creating clean pulp that can be turned into new paper products.

  • A solution that works slower than gradual solutions and is expected to take longer to reach its full potential.

  • Microbial conversion of nitrate into inert nitrogen gas under low-oxygen conditions, which produces the greenhouse gas nitrous oxide as an intermediate compound.

  • Electronic document that verifies whether a product has been manufactured according to environmental and social standards and/or material origins, environmental impact, and disposal recommendations.

  • Electronic documents that verify whether or not a product has been manufactured according to environmental and social standards and/or material origins, environmental impact, and disposal recommendations.

  • Greenhouse gas emissions produced as a direct result of the use of a technology or practice.

  • Electric power that can be increased, decreased, or turned on/off to match real-time fluctuations in grid conditions. Typically supplied by fast-responding plants such as natural gas, hydroelectric, or battery storage.

  • The inorganic forms of carbon dissolved in seawater. Composed of dissolved CO₂, carbonic acid, bicarbonate ions, and carbonate ions.

  • A system of underground distribution pipes that supply heat from centralized sources to a large number of buildings for space and water heating or industrial use.

  • A window consisting of two glass panes separated by a sealed gap and typically filled with air or an inert gas to improve the heat flow resistance.

  • A waste management system that transforms waste into different products of lower quality and value, making materials harder to recycle again and limiting reuse.

  • A measure of how long removed carbon stays out of the atmosphere.

  • Flexible benchmarks derived from independent, publicly available, frequently updated data sets.

  • European Energy Agency

  • Ability of a solution to reduce emissions or remove carbon, expressed in CO₂-eq per installed adoption unit. Effectiveness is quantified per year when the adoption unit is cumulative over time.

  • Enhanced geothermal system

  • Exajoule (one quintillion joules)

  • A process that uses electric current to drive a reaction, such as using electricity to split water molecules into hydrogen and oxygen.

  • Produced by electrolysis.

  • Greenhouse gas emissions accrued over the lifetime of a material or product, including as it is produced, transported, used, and disposed of.

  • Solutions that work faster than gradual solutions, front-loading their impact in the near term.

  • Methane produced by microbes in the digestive tracts of ruminant livestock, such as cattle, sheep and goats.

  • The unintended capture of organisms in intake flows.

  • Environmental Protection Agency

  • Extended Producer Responsibility

  • expanded polystyrene

  • Environmental Research & Education Foundation

  • environmental, social, and governance

  • exchange-traded fund

  • A process triggered by an overabundance of nutrients in water, particularly nitrogen and phosphorus, that stimulates excessive plant and algae growth and can harm aquatic organisms.

  • Electric vehicle

  • The movement of water from the earth’s surface to the atmosphere directly from land or water surfaces (evaporation) and through plant tissues (transpiration).

     

  • The scientific literature that supports our assessment of a solution's effectiveness.

  • A policy framework that assigns responsibility to producers for the end-of-life servicing of their products.

  • A group of human-made molecules that contain fluorine atoms. They are potent greenhouse gases with GWPs that can be hundreds to thousands times higher than CO₂.

  • Food, agriculture, land, and ocean

  • Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations

  • feed conversion ratio

  • The efficiency with which an animal converts feed into increased body mass, measured as the ratio of the weight of the feed given to weight gain. Lower FCR means less feed for the same growth.

  • A policy mechanism that incentivizes renewables through contracts that guarantee a set price for the electricity generated.

  • Raw material inputs for manufacturing, processing, and managing waste.

  • Containing or consisting of iron.

  • A measure of fishing activity over time and area, commonly measured by number of trips, vessel time, or gear deployed.

  • A solar PV system with panels mounted at a constant angle.

  • Glass is manufactured by floating molten glass on a molten tin bath, producing a smooth, flat product with high optical clarity, often used for window applications.

  • food loss and waste

  • Food discarded during pre-consumer supply chain stages, including production, harvest, and processing.

  • Food discarded during pre-consumer supply chain stages, including production, harvest, and processing, along with food discarded wt the retail and consumer stages of the supply chain.

  • Food discarded at the retail and consumer stages of the supply chain.

  • Combustible materials found in Earth's crust that can be burned for energy, including oil, natural gas, and coal. They are formed from decayed organisms through prehistoric geological processes.

  • Free, prior, and informed consent

  • A principled process of working with Indigenous communities that requires consent from Indigenous peoples for any decision, action, or activity that impacts their community and/or lands.

  • Unintentional leaks of gases or vapor into the atmosphere.

  • A group of countries representing the majority of the world's population, trade, and GDP. There are 19 member countries plus the European Union and the African Union

  • Gas collection and control system

  • A design or approach to policy, programs, or activities that addresses the different situations, roles, needs, and interests of women, men, girls, and boys.

  • Manipulating the environment to influence the quantities or impact of climate pollutants in the atmosphere.

  • Heavy-duty, low-permeability liners made mostly from synthetic plastics or rubber, used to block the movement of liquids or gases in engineered storage sites.

  • greenhouse gas

  • Global horizontal irradiance

  • gigajoule or billion joules

  • The glass layers or panes in a window.

  • The intensity of all solar radiant energy on a horizontal surface over a specific time frame, which limits PV power output. Measured as energy per area per year (kWh/m2/yr).

  • A measure of how effectively a gas traps heat in the atmosphere relative to CO₂. GWP converts greenhouse gases into CO₂-eq emissions based on their 20- or 100-year impacts.

  • A solution that has a steady impact on the atmosphere. Effectiveness is expected to be constant over time rather than having a higher impact in the near or long term.

  • A system that uses the slope of a field and furrows, borders, or flooding to apply water without pumping.

  • Hydrogen produced from natural gas, most commonly by combining heated steam with methane. Producing grey hydrogen emits CO₂ and leaks methane. Most hydrogen made today is grey.

  • A fixed income debt instrument focused on sustainable projects. Green bonds work in the same manner as traditional bonds and may be issued by corporations, financial institutions, and governments.

  • A fixed income debt instrument focused on sustainable projects. They work in the same manner as traditional bonds and may be issued by corporations, financial institutions, and governments.

  • Hydrogen gas made through electrolysis using electricity produced onsite using renewable energy sources.

  • The practice of charging more for renewable energy than for conventional energy to cover added costs .

  • Roofs that are designed to be partially or completely covered in vegetation.

  • Biomass discarded during landscaping and gardening.

  • A gas that traps heat in the atmosphere, contributing to climate change.

  • The makeup of electricity generation on a power grid, showing the share contributed by various energy sources (e.g., coal, natural gas, nuclear, wind, solar, hydro) relative to total electricity production.

  • A process by which GHGs dissolved in groundwater are released to the atmosphere when the groundwater is extracted from the aquifer.

  • metric gigatons or billion metric tons

  • global warming potential

  • A low-carbon steel-making technology that uses hydrogen from water, direct reduction of iron, and electric arc furnaces. 

  • hectare

  • household air pollution

  • A sector or process that is exceptionally challenging to decarbonize, often because of a lack of mature technology options.  

  • hydrochlorofluorocarbon

  • Number of years a person is expected to live without disability or other limitations that restrict basic functioning and activity.

  • A measure of the total space heating demand to maintain an indoor temperature above 18 °C

  • A unit of land area comprising 10,000 square meters, roughly equal to 2.5 acres.

  • Hybrid electric car

  • hydrofluorocarbon

  • hydrofluoroolefin

  • hydrofluoroolefin

  • high-income countries

  • Metal waste that is produced at a mill or foundry during the metal production process and recycled internally.

  • Particles and gases released from use of polluting fuels and technologies such as biomass cookstoves that cause poor air quality in and around the home.

  • heating, ventilation, air conditioning, and refrigeration

  • Organic compounds that contain hydrogen and carbon.

  • Human-made F-gases that contain hydrogen, fluorine, and carbon. They typically have short atmospheric lifetimes and GWPs hundreds or thousands times higher than CO₂. 

  • Human-made F-gases that contain hydrogen, fluorine, and carbon, with at least one double bond. They have low GWPs and can be climate-friendly alternatives to HFC refrigerants.

  • A recycling process that separates fibers from contaminants for reuse. Paper or cardboard is mixed with water to break down fibrous materials into pulp.

  • internal combustion engine

  • International Energy Agency

  • Aerobic decomposition of organic waste in a sealed container or bin/bay system. 

  • Greenhouse gas emissions produced as a result of a technology or practice but not directly from its use.

  • A solid block of purified silicon formed by melting and crystallizing raw silicon; it serves as the base material for slicing into wafers used in solar cells.

  • Device used to power vehicles by the intake, compression, combustion, and exhaust of fuel that drives moving parts.

  • The annual discount rate that balances net cash flows for a project over time. Also called IRR, internal rate of return is used to estimate profitability of potential investments.

  • Individuals or institutions willing to lend money in search of a return on their investment.

  • Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

  • Indigenous peoples’ land

  • Integrated pest management.

  • internal rate of return

  • The timing and amount of irrigation water applied.

  • International Union for Conservation of Nature

  • The most comprehensive global list of species threatened with extinction, maintained by the International Union for Conservation of Nature.

  • International agreement adopted in 2016 to phase down the use of high-GWP HFC F-gases over the time frame 2019–2047.

  • A measure of energy equivalent to the energy delivered by 1,000 watts of power over one hour.

  • kiloton or one thousand metric tons

  • kilowatt-hour

  • The intentional or unintentional act of property use crossing ownership boundaries without permission.

  • A land-holding system, e.g. ownership, leasing, or renting. Secure land tenure means farmers or other land users will maintain access to and use of the land in future years.

  • Gases, mainly methane and CO₂, created by the decomposition of organic matter in the absence of oxygen.

  • levelized cost of electricity

  • leak detection and repair

  • Regular monitoring for fugitive methane leaks throughout oil and gas, coal, and landfill sector infrastructure and the modification or replacement of leaking equipment.

  • Relocation of emissions-causing activities outside of a mitigation project area rather than a true reduction in emissions.

  • The rate at which solution costs decrease as adoption increases, based on production efficiencies, technological improvements, or other factors.

  • Percent decrease in costs per doubling of adoption.

  • A metric describing the expected break-even cost of generating electricity per megawatt-hour ($/MWh), combining costs related to capital, operation, and fuel (if used) and dividing by total output over the generator's lifetime.

  • landfill gas

  • Greenhouse gas emissions from the sourcing, production, use, and disposal of a technology or practice.

  • A process that converts biomass, plastics, or other solid wastes into liquid fuel or chemicals.

  • The total weight of an organism before any meat processing.

  • low- and middle-income countries

  • liquefied petroleum gas

  • land use change

  • A measure of the amount of light produced by a light source per energy input.

  • live weight

  • Mobility as a Service

  • marginal abatement cost curve

  • Livestock grazing practices that strategically manage livestock density, grazing intensity, and timing. Also called improved grazing, these practices have environmental, soil health, and climate benefits, including enhanced soil carbon sequestration.

  • Intertidal coastal wetlands with salt-tolerant trees and shrubs found in tropical and subtropical regions.

  • A tool to measure and compare the financial cost and abatement benefit of individual actions based on the initial and operating costs, revenue, and emission reduction potential.

  • Periods of unusually warm ocean temperatures that typically last from days to months and can affect large areas of the ocean.

  • Defined by the International Union for Conservation of Nature as: "A clearly defined geographical space, recognised, dedicated and managed, through legal or other effective means, to achieve the long-term conservation of nature with associated ecosystem services and cultural values." References to PAs here also include other effective area-based conservation measures defined by the IUCN. 

  • The transfer of economic activity or environmental impact from one area to another as a result of conservation activities, often having the effect of reducing or offsetting intended benefits.

  • The transfer of economic activity or environmental impact from one location to another as a result of conservation activities, often having the effect of reducing or offsetting intended benefits.

  • A facility that receives recyclable waste from residential, commercial, and industrial sources; separates, processes, and prepares them; and then sells them to manufacturers for reuse in new products.

  • A measure of energy equivalent to the energy delivered by one million watts of power over one hour.

  • A greenhouse gas with a short lifetime and high GWP that can be produced through a variety of mechanisms including the breakdown of organic matter.

  • A measure of mass equivalent to 1,000 kilograms (~2,200 lb), also known as tonne.

  • million hectares

  • The natural process by which microbes convert matter to energy, often producing CO₂ or other GHGs as a byproduct.

  • Soils mostly composed of inorganic materials formed through the breakdown of rocks. Most soils are mineral soils, and they generally have less than 20% organic matter by weight.

  • A localized electricity system that independently generates and distributes power. Typically serving limited geographic areas, mini-grids can operate in isolation or interconnected with the main grid.

  • Reduce adverse impact of

  • A reduction in adverse impact

  • megajoule or one million joules

  • Digital platform that integrates transport modes such as public transit, carpooling, and bike sharing into a single service, allowing users to plan, book, and pay for multimodal trips through one application.

  • Percent of trips made by different passenger and freight transportation modes.

  • A condition of being diseased, unhealthy, or injured.

  • Marine Protected Area

  • materials recovery facility

  • Municipal solid waste

  • megaton or million metric tons

  • Materials discarded from residential and commercial sectors, including organic waste, glass, metals, plastics, paper, and cardboard.

  • megawatt

  • Megawatt-hour

  • micro wind turbine

  • square meter kelvins per watt (a measure of thermal resistance, also called R-value)

  • nitrous oxide

  • The enclosed housing at the top of a wind turbine tower that contains the main mechanical and electrical components of the turbine.

  • A commitment from a country to reduce national emissions and/or sequester carbon in alignment with global climate goals under the Paris Agreement, including plans for adapting to climate impacts.

  • A gaseous form of hydrocarbons consisting mainly of methane.

  • Chemicals found in nature that are used for cooling and heating, such as CO₂, ammonia, and some hydrocarbons. They have low GWPs and are ozone friendly, making them climate-friendly refrigerants.

  • The rate of primary production for photosynthetic organisms, excluding the carbon they respire for their own metabolic processes.

  • The rate at which photosynthetic organisms convert carbon dioxide into organic matter, minus the carbon they respire for their own metabolic processes.

  • Microbial conversion of ammonia or ammonium to nitrite and then to nitrate under aerobic conditions.

  • A group of air pollutant molecules composed of nitrogen and oxygen, including NO and NO₂.

  • A greenhouse gas produced during fossil fuel combustion and agricultural and industrial processes. N₂O is hundreds of times more potent than CO₂ at trapping atmospheric heat, and it depletes stratospheric ozone.

  • Metals or alloys that do not contain significant amounts of iron.

  • Social welfare organizations, civic leagues, social clubs, labor organizations, business associations, and other not-for-profit organizations.

  • A material or energy source that relies on resources that are finite or not naturally replenished at the rate of consumption, including fossil fuels like coal, oil, and natural gas.

  • nitrogen oxides

  • Net primary production

  • nitrous oxide

  • The process of increasing the acidity of seawater, primarily caused by absorption of CO₂ from the atmosphere.

  • Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development

  • An agreement between a seller who will produce future goods and a purchaser who commits to buying them, often used as project financing for producers prior to manufacturing.

  • Waste made of plant or animal matter, including food waste and green waste.

  • Systems to connect buyers with a network of smallholder farmers to stabilize supply and demand (sometimes called "contract farming.”

  • organic waste

  • Protected area

  • Protected Area

  • A certification that verifies a metric ton of packaging waste has been recovered and is being exported for reprocessing.

  • A certification that verifies a metric ton of packaging waste has been recovered and reprocessed.

  • Productive use of wet or rewetted peatlands that does not disturb the peat layer, such as for hunting, gathering, and growing wetland-adapted crops for food, fiber, and energy.

  • A legally protected area that lacks effective enforcement or management, resulting in minimal to no conservation benefit.

  • Airborne particles composed of solids and liquids.

  • A measure of transporting one passenger over a distance of one kilometer.

  • Incentive payments to landowners or managers to conserve natural resources and promote healthy ecological functions or ecosystem services.

  • An organic, carbon-rich soil layer made of partially decomposed dead plant material that accumulates under low-oxygen conditions.

  • Small, hardened pieces of plastic made from cooled resin that can be melted to make new plastic products.

  • Transitional zone between urban and rural areas that combines features of both such as housing, farms, lower-density development, and mixed land uses.

  • The longevity of any greenhouse gas emission reductions or removals. Solution impacts are considered permanent if the risk of reversing the positive climate impacts is low within 100 years.

  • Packaging waste export recovery note

  • High-efficiency solar cells with a traditional silicon base and a thin-film perovskite layer on top that allows the combined cell to capture more energy without significantly increasing its size.

  • Advanced solar cells combining perovskite and silicon layers to capture more of the solar spectrum, achieving higher efficiency than conventional silicon cells.

  • Payments for ecosystem services

  • A mixture of hydrocarbons, small amounts of other organic compounds, and trace amounts of metals used to produce products such as fuels or plastics.

  • Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances, a class of synthetic chemicals that do not degrade easily in the environment. They can pollute the environment and can have negative impacts on human health.

  • A measure of the acidity (pH<7) or alkalinity (pH>7) of a solution.

  • Reduce the use of a material or practice over time.

  • Eliminate the use of a material or practice over time.

  • Plug-in hybrid electric car

  • Private, national, or multilateral organizations dedicated to providing aid through in-kind or financial donations.

  • A chemical or material that initiates or accelerates a chemical reaction when exposed to light without being consumed.

  • An atmospheric reaction among sunlight, VOCs, and nitrogen oxide that leads to ground-level ozone formation. Ground-level ozone, a component of smog, harms human health and the environment.

  • The process by which certain materials, such as those in solar cells, convert sunlight into electricity by releasing electrons.

  • The process by which sunlight is converted into electricity. When light hits certain materials, such as those in solar panels, it mobilizes electrons, creating an electric current.

  • A family of synthetic organic compounds used to make plastics softer, more flexible, and durable. They are added to a wide range of plastics for consumer and industrial uses.

  • polyisocyanurate

  • The adjustment of turbine blade angles around their long axis in which a control system rotates blades slightly forward or backward to regulate wind capture and optimize electricity generation.

  • passenger kilometer

  • particulate matter

  • Particulate matter 2.5 micrometers or less in diameter that can harm human health when inhaled.

  • Elected officials and their staff, bureaucrats, civil servants, regulators, attorneys, and government affairs professionals.

  • System in a vehicle that generates power and delivers it to the wheels. It typically includes an engine and/or motor, transmission, driveshaft, and differential.

  • Purchase Power Agreement.

  • Purchase Power Agreements

  • Parts per million

  • People who most directly interface with a solution and/or determine whether the solution is used and/or available. 

  • A chemical reaction that creates a solid from a solution.

  • A substance that is the starting material for a chemical reaction that forms a different substance.

  • Extraction of naturally occurring resources from the Earth, including mining, logging, and oil and gas refining. These resources can be used in raw or minimally processed forms to produce materials.

  • The process of converting inorganic matter, including carbon dioxide, into organic matter (biomass), primarily by photosynthetic organisms such as plants and algae.

  • Packaging waste recovery note

  • Defined by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature as "A clearly defined geographical space, recognised, dedicated and managed, through legal or other effective means, to achieve the long-term conservation of nature with associated ecosystem services and cultural values". References to PAs here also include other effective area-based conservation measures defined by the IUCN. 

  • A process that separates and breaks down wood and other raw materials into fibers that form pulp, the base ingredient for making paper products.

  • polyurethane

  • Long-term contract between a company (the buyer) and a renewable energy producer (the seller).

  • Long-term contracts between a company (the buyer) and a renewable energy producer (the seller).

  • photovoltaic

  • Petawatt-hour, equal to 1 billion MWh

  • research and development

  • An atom, molecule, or ion that contains at least one unpaired valence electron, making it highly reactive and often short-lived.

  • A situation in which improvements in efficiency or savings lead to consumers increasing consumption, partially or fully offsetting or exceeding the emissions or cost benefits.

  • renewable energy certificate

  • Chemical or mixture used for cooling and heating in refrigeration, air conditioning, and heat pump equipment. Refrigerants absorb and release heat as they move between states under changing pressure.

  • The amount of refrigerant needed for a particular refrigeration, air conditioning, or heat pump system.

  • A group of approaches to farming and ranching that emphasizes enhancing the health of soil by restoring its carbon content and providing other benefits to the farm and surrounding ecosystem.

  • A solution that can increase the beneficial impact of another solution through increased effectiveness, lower costs, improved adoption, enhanced global climate impact, and/or other benefits to people and nature.

  • A material or energy source that relies on naturally occuring and replenishing resources such as plant matter, wind, or sunlight.

  • A market-based instrument that tracks ownership of renewable energy generation.

  • The moldable form of raw plastic material, created by melting down waste or virgin plastics and serving as the building block for creating new plastic goods.

  • The process of moving items from end users (e.g., consumers) back to the sellers or manufacturers to reuse, recycle, or dispose of. This can include transportation, cleaning, sorting, and more.

  • The risk that removed or stored carbon can be released into the atmosphere. Lower reversibility means the carbon is more securely stored.


     

  • Hiring a vehicle to take a passenger or passengers to a particular destination.

  • U.N. treaties to combat climate change, biodiversity loss, and desertification. They include the U.N. Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), and the U.N. Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD).

  • A class of animals with complex stomachs that can digest grass. Most grazing livestock are ruminants including cows, sheep, and goats along with several other species.

  • sustainable aviation fuel

  • A wetland ecosystem regularly flooded by tides and containing salt-tolerant plants, such as grasses and herbs.

  • Intertidal coastal wetlands with salt-tolerant plants.

  • An ecosystem characterized by low-density tree cover that allows for a grass subcanopy.

  • Very large or small numbers are formatted in scientific notation. A positive exponent multiplies the number by powers of ten; a negative exponent divides the number by powers of ten.

  • Seasonal coefficient of performance

  • Sustainable Development Goals

  • Average units of heat energy released for every unit of electrical energy consumed, used to measure heat pump efficiency.

  • A single pane window (glass and frame) added to an existing single-glazed window, converting the unit into double glazing, with each pane independently operable.

  • A practice in which multiple utility companies own and operate high-voltage power lines, sharing both costs and benefits.

  • A window consisting of one glass pane without any additional insulating layers.

  • Small-scale family farmers and other food producers, often with limited resources, usually in the tropics. The average size of a smallholder farm is two hectares (about five acres).

  • Devices that control indoor temperature according to user-defined schedules or conditions.

  • soil organic carbon

  • The process of using direct, real-world observations to verify, validate, and/or improve data and models about social systems, often using in-person observations in the field.

  • Carbon stored in soils, including both organic (from decomposing plants and microbes) and inorganic (from carbonate-containing minerals).

  • Carbon stored in soils in organic forms (from decomposing plants and microbes). Soil organic carbon makes up roughly half of soil organic matter by weight.

  • Biologically derived matter in soils, including living, dead, and decayed plant and microbial tissues. Soil organic matter is roughly half carbon on a dry-weight basis.

  • A measure of the intensity of solar radiant energy on a surface, measured in watts per square meter (W/m2) or power per unit area.

  • Reducing global warming by increasing how much of the sun's radiation is reflected back to space and/or decreasing how much of the Earth's radiative heat is trapped in the atmosphere. 

  • A material's ability to reflect solar radiation incident on its surface, often reported as a fraction or percentage.

  • soil organic matter

  • A substance that takes up another liquid or gas substance, either by absorbtion or adsorption.

  • sulfur oxides

  • sulfur dioxide

  • The rate at which a climate solution physically affects the atmosphere after being deployed. At Project Drawdown, we use three categories: emergency brake (fastest impact), gradual, or delayed (slowest impact).

  • Climate regions between latitudes 23.4° to 35° above and below the equator characterized by warm summers and mild winters.

  • A polluting gas produced primarily from burning fossil fuels and industrial processes that directly harms the environment and human health.

  • A group of gases containing sulfur and oxygen that predominantly come from burning fossil fuels. They contribute to air pollution, acid rain, and respiratory health issues.

  • Processes, people, and resources involved in producing and delivering a product from supplier to end customer, including material acquisition.

  • Sport utility vehicle

  • A mixture of hydrogen, carbon monoxide, and other gases, used to produce chemicals like ammonia and methanol, or as a synthetic fuel made from non-fossil feedstocks, including biomass and waste.

  • metric ton

  • metric tons

  • Technology developers, including founders, designers, inventors, R&D staff, and creators seeking to overcome technical or practical challenges.

  • Climate regions between 35° to 50° above and below the equator characterized by moderate mean annual temperatures and distinct seasons, with warm summers and cold winters.

  • A measure of energy equivalent to the energy delivered by one trillion watts of power over one hour.

  • trifluoroacetic acid

  • trifluoroacetic acid

  • A measurement indicating the ability of a material to release heat after it has been absorbed.

  • A measure of how well a material prevents heat flow, often called R-value or RSI-value for insulation. A higher R-value means better thermal performance.

  • A measure of the rate of heat flow or heat transfer through a material or building component. A lower U-value means better thermal performance.

  • Individuals with an established audience for their work, including public figures, experts, journalists, and educators.

  • Charges for disposal of materials paid to facility operators. Fees can be charged per ton of waste disposed or based on economic indicators such as the Consumer Price Index.

  • A solar PV systems with panels that move automatically to follow the sun’s path, maximizing energy capture and improving efficiency over fixed systems.

  • A window consisting of three panes of glass separated by two insulating inert gas-filled layers, providing more heat flow resistance than single or double glazing.

  • Low-latitude (23.4°S to 23.4°N) climate regions near the Equator characterized by year-round high temperatures and distinct wet and dry seasons.

  • Terawatt, equal to 1,000 gigawatts

  • terawatt-hour

  • United Nations

  • United Nations Environment Programme

  • U.S. Composting Council

  • Self-propelled machine for transporting passengers or freight on roads.

  • A measure of one vehicle traveling a distance of one kilometer.

  • How easily and reliably a carbon‑removal claim can be measured and independently confirmed as accurate; part of measurement, reporting and verification (MRV) for carbon removal.

  • Aerobic decomposition of organic waste by earthworms and microorganisms.

  • vehicle kilometer

  • volatile organic compound

  • Gases made of organic, carbon-based molecules that are readily released into the air from other solid or liquid materials. Some VOCs are greenhouse gases or can harm human health.

  • watt (a measure of power or energy transfer.)

  • Watts per square meter Kelvin

  • A thin, flat slice of silicon cut from an ingot and processed to create individual solar cells that convert sunlight into electricity.

  • Landscape waste, storm debris, wood processing residues, and recovered post-consumer wood.

  • A framework for waste management that ranks options by their sustainability: 1) prevent (do not purchase unnecessary waste), 2) reduce, 3) reuse, 4) recycle, 5) recover, 6) dispose.

  • A measure of how much free water is available for microbes to use. It ranges from 0 (completely dry) to 1 (pure water), and low values (<0.60) indicate conditions too dry for microbes to function.

  • A measure of power equal to one joule per second.

  • World Conservation Monitoring Centre

  • Using strategies such as insulation, air sealing, ventilation, and moisture control to upgrade a building’s exterior structure, making indoors more comfortable and energy efficient.

  • Aerobic decomposition of organic waste in long, narrow rows called windrows. Windrows are generally twice as long as they are wide.

  • A subset of forest ecosystems that may have sparser canopy cover,  smaller-stature trees, and/or trees characterized by basal branching rather than a single main stem.

  • extruded polystyrene

  • The rotation of the nacelle (the enclosed housing at the top of a wind turbine tower that contains the main mechanical and electrical components of the turbine) so that the rotor blades are always facing directly into the wind.

  • year-over-year

  • year

back to top